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BoR.S

THE ESSENTIALS OF EXTEMPORE

SPEAKING

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

r TOXX • BOSTON • CHICAGO •
ATLAMTA • SAM FXAMCISCO

MACMILLAN ft CO., Limttbd

LOMDOIf . BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MXLBOUXMX

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
OF CANADA, Umttbd

TOXOMTO

THE ESSENTIALS OF
EXTEMPORE SPEAKING

JOSEPH a: MOSHER, Pr. d.

DBPABmSMT OF PUBUC BPBAXING, COLLEGE OF THE CITT
NEW tore; special LECTUEER ON EXTEMPORE SPEAK-
ING, ADVERTISING CLUB OF NEW YORK, AND AUTHOR
OF ''the ESSENTIALS OF BFFBCTIVB OBSTURB **

Sfftit f mfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

193S

CoPTBiaHT, 1017,

bt the MACMILLAN GOMPANT.

AH rishts reierved — no port oi this book may be
reproduced in any fonn without permission in writing
from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes
to quote brief passages in connection with a review
written for indusion in magaasine (v newspaper.

Set up and clectrotyped. Published September, 19x7.

• vinrnED nr ihk umiied biaizs or amibttca •

7-2 2 -^/Z

PREFACE

The following pages aim to embody in clear
and concise form the essentials of practical, ex-
tempore speaking. No attempt is made to add
to the bibliography of oratory, which is already
adequate. This can hardly be said, however, of
the bibliography of practical address. A few ad-
mirable books on this phase of public speaking
have appeared within recent years, but much
that is helpful in the way of new viewpoints and
new methods of presentation remains to be writ-
ten. To distinguish between the aim of the writer
on oratory and the purpose of the present treatise,
I quote from a book,* recently republished in
this country, which represents the oratorical view-
point:

"Once face to face, and at grappling point
with his idea, he [the orator] will forget every-
thing else. He will no longer see anything save
the thought which he has to manifest, the feeling
of his heart which he has to communicate. His
voice, which just now was so tremulous and
broken, will acquire assurance, authority, bril-

* "The Art of Extempore Speaking," by Abbe Bautain.

vi Preface

lianqr; if he is rightly inspired that day, if light
from on high beams in his intelligence and warms
his soul, his eyes will shoot lightning, and his
voice the thunderbolt; his countenance will shine
like the sun, and the weakness of humanity will
undergo its transfiguration. He will stand on
the Mount Tabor of eloquence."

The above represents a noble and inspiring
conception of the speaker; to say anything further
on that phase of the subject would, I am afraid,
be in the nature of an anti-climax. But such
a point of view is not calculated to minister to the
requirements of the great body of students,
teachers, lawyers, doctors, businessmen, and simi-
lar everyday people who will never have occasion
to scale the heights of eloquence, but who often
need to express their ideas clearly, forcefully, and
attractively to their fellowmen. It is to such
that the following pages are addressed.

The material used represents, in the main, a
condensation and arrangement of the notes and
criticisms which the writer has found most helpful
to classes during ten years devoted chiefly to
helping men — students, business and professional
men — to develop their ability to speak effectively.
One of the convictions which this experience has
instilled is that in teaching public speaking it is
easy to play a part in making "over-instruction
the bane of modern education," as Professor A. M.

Preface v5

Hitchcock has trenchantly put it. Too many
details, too much insistence on the delicate shades
of effect, either in lectures or text-books, are apt
to discourage and confuse the student. On the
other hand, the subject may be presented in such
a vague and sketchy way as to provide him with
no substantial guiding principles and aids in the
actual practice of speaking, which must, of course,
constitute the backbone of his training. The
writer has tried to avoid these extremes, and
hopes that the result may be of service to those
who are interested in practical, extempore address.

J. A. M.
New York City, June, 1917.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pagb

Przfacb ▼

CHAPTER I

OVERCOIONG THB DREAD OF SPEAKING IK PUBUC

A. The Dread of Speaking in Public I

B. Overcoming the Causes of Dread 3

I. "Stag^-fright" 2

II. Misconception of the Speaker's Task 4

III. Poor Preparation 6

C. Summary 8

CHAPTER II

THE FXTNCnOKS OF THE PARTS OF A SPEECH

A. The Divisions of a Speech 10

B. The Functions of the Introduction 10

I. Gaining the Attention 10

II. Arousing the Interest ii

III. Presenting the Main Theme 12

IV. Transition to the Development 12

C. The Functions of the Development 13

I. Emphasizing the Main Theme 13

II. Producing Conviction 14

III. Establishing Distinct Salient Points 14

IV. Holding the Listeners' Interest and Sympathy 14

xii Table of Contents

Page
CHAPTER VI

CONCLUDING A SPEECH

A. The Effect of Completeness 75

B. Clinching the Central Idea 76

C. The Emotional Appeal 76

D. Exhorting to Action 80

E. Summary 81

CHAPTER VII

PREPARATION FOR A SPEECH

A. General Preparation 83

B. Specific Preparation 84

I. Investigation 84

a. Making a Bibliography 85

b. Reading and Note-taking 88

c. Adjusting the Notes 91

11. Outlining 91

C. Summary 96

CHAPTER VIII

EFFECTIVE STYLE IN SPEECH COMPOSITION

A. Unity loi

B. Coherence 104

I. Coherent Thought 104

II. Coherent Expression 105

Table of Contents ziii

Page

C. Qeamess 109

I. Simplicity lio

II. Directness 112

D. Force 114

I. Arrangement 115

11. Choice of Words 117

a. Simplicity 117

b. Precision 118

c Vocabulary Building 119

III. Illustration 121

rV. Proportion 123

a. Causes of Bad Proportion 123

b. Emphasis by Proportion 124

E. Attractiveness — ^A Special Quality 125

I. Figures of Speech 127

II. Wit and Humor 128

III. Variety in Sentence Structure 132

F. Summary 134

CHAPTER IX

THE PERSONALnr OF THE 8PEAXEE

A. Self-confidence 138

I. The Basis of Self-confidence 139

II. Means of Development 140

B. Sincerity 140

C. Charm .• 142

I. Modesty 142

II. Geniality 143

III. Tact 146

D. Sununary 148

xiv Table of Contents

Pagb
CHAPTER X

THE speaker's ATTITUDE TOWARD HIS SUBJECT

A. Familiarity with the Subject 150

B. A Spirit of Fairness 152

C. A Marked Degree of Interest 157

D. Summary 160

CHAPTER XI

THE speaker's ATTITUDE TOWARD HIS AUDIENCE

A. Alertness 162

B. Friendliness 163

C. The Will to Convince and Persuade 166

D. A Spirit of Helpfulness 167

E. Summary 170

CHAPTER Xn

THE VOICE FACTOR

A* Pronunciation 175

B. The Question of Indistinctness 175

I. Running Words Together 175

II. Speaking in the Throat 176

III. Speaking with the Mouth Gosed 176

IV. Faulty Articulation 177

C« Modulation 179

I. Pleasing Expression 179

a. Voice Quality. 179

b. Inflection • 181

c. Force and Rate 182

Table of Contents xv

Page

II. Clear and Forceful Expression 183

a. Modulations of Quality 183

b. Modulations of Pitch and Force 184

c. Modulations of Rate 186

D. Summary 187

aiAPTER XIII

EXPRESSIVE GESTURE

A. Gesture Defined 191

B. Normal Position 192

C. Shifting the Position 192

D. Expression with the Head and Face 193

E. Gestures of the Arms and Hands 194

I. Manual Gestures and Common Sense 194

II. The Scope of Manual Gestures 196

a. Forms of the Hand 197

b. Positions of the Hand 197

c. Using Both Hands 199

III. Essential Characteristics of Effective Gesture 199

a. Aptness 199

b. Accuracy of Timing 200

c. Spontaneity 202

F. Summary 203

CHAPTER XIV
Conclusion 205

THE ESSENTIALS OF EXTEMPORE

SPEAKING

The Essentials of Extempore

Speaking

CHAPTER I

OVERCOMING THE DREAD OF SPEAKING

IN PUBLIC

A. The Dread of Speaking in Public

There may be plenty of "big" speakers but the
average man, young or old, educated or unedu-
cated, experiences an unpleasant sensation when
asked to talk in public. Often he flatly refuses
such an invitation, and if pressed, perjures himself
in offering excuses which may effect his escape.
Sometimes for business or social reasons he cannot
evade the necessity of addressing an audience.
Then comes a period of worry, premonition of
failure, and dread. His brain is agitated with the
recollection of anecdotes and the construction of
apologies for the poor speech which he expects to
make. Finally, the average man gets through with
the thing somehow and again resumes his peace of
mind. Surely at a time when public utterance

2 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

affords so many opportunities for helping one's
self and others, this situation is to be deplored.

B. Overcoming the Causes of Dread

If we are to overcome this dread we must attack
its causes. These fall mainly under three heads:
the anticipation of "stage-fright," a mistaken idea
of what is expected of a speaker, and poor prep-
aration.

I. '' Stagf'frighr

The embarrassment felt upon facing an audience
is not to be laughed away, for it is something very
real as anyone whose knees have smote beneath
him will testify. Indeed, however simple the oc-
casion or small the audience, it is undoubtedly a
test for the beginner to stand before the focused
eyes and attentive ears of people who are checking
up the words and thoughts as they fall from his
lips. Even if the speech be only a toast at a con-
vivial dinner, the position carries a measure of
responsibility. The audience is silent; the speaker
has the floor; he is expected to say something
which has information or wit or, at least, good
sense in it. And for the unpracticed person to
satisfy that expectation is confessedly no trivial
matter.

However, the difficulty is greatly exaggerated
by the speaker's imagination. He assumes that

The Dread of Speaking in Public 3

he is going to be scared, and almost broods over
the supposed terror of facing an audience. There-
fore, when the occasion arrives he is in a state
of nervous tension which invites panic. The
remedy for this weakness is to prepare for an ad-
dress and then throw it off the mind until the final
review of the outline just before speaking.

Another producer of "stage-fright" is a common
misconception regarding the attitude of the au-
dience toward the speaker. The latter is apt to
imagine his listeners as looking for an opportunity
to ridicule him or to rejoice in his failure. Under
ordinary circumstances, where no unfriendliness
toward the speaker exists, this is most certainly
not the case. As a matter of fact a speaker in
difficulty is rather less distressed than is his au-
dience. Almost every individual in an average
assembly feels that his own enjoyment depends
largely upon the speaker's ease and felicity, and
appreciates the effort that the speaker is making
in behalf of the audience. The result is a com-
posite spirit of co-operation and good wishes. A
realization of this fact should further reduce the
preliminary fear of embarrassment which in many
cases haunts the speaker from the moment he
has agreed to make an address.

The residue of apprehension should be met with
a summoning of courage, of determination to go
through the first half dozen appearances, after

4 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

which a speaker will, ordinarily, experience a fair
and increasing degree of comfort before his au-*
dience.

II. Misconception of the Speaker^s Task

A second cause for dread is a misconception of
what is usually expected of a speaker. The source
of this faulty idea lies chiefly in the character of
the speeches published in the average "collec-
tion/' and the teaching of speaking which has ob-
tained in the past and is still in vogue in many
schools and colleges. The pieces which comprise
the bulk of the collections mentioned are master-
pieces of oratory, delivered on great occasions by
the giants of the rostrum. Demosthenes, Cicero,
Robespierre, Hugo, Patrick Henry, Wendell Phil-
lips, Gladstone, Henry W. Grady, W. J. Bryan —
such are the men whose most striking efforts are
read by young men and women as models of the
speaker's art. The lights and shades of Phillips'
chiselled diction, the passion of Patrick Henry's
burning periods, the lofty imagery of Webster's
surging oratory, the telling pathos of Grady's
vivid word-pictures — such are the features which
are studied and rehearsed under the tutelage of
instructors who frequently possess an unfortunate
excellence in dramatic interpretation, serving to
obscure rather than to advance the real aim of
studying public speaking.

The Dread of Speaking in Public 5

And what is the relationship between this kind
of reading and study and the dread which the
average man feels when asked to address an au-
dience? Simply that he has more or less uncon-
sciously acquired from it a false notion of what is
expected of a speaker. If the things which he has
read or studied are models, then he must attempt
to deliver himself in a profound, dramatic, or
elegant manner. Is it any wonder that he quakes
inwardly when called upon to speak?

In pointing out the misconception derived from
the study and practice of masterpieces, it is only
fair to draw a clear distinction between the re-
sults as applied to dramatic interpretation and
to practical public speaking. The practices which
have just been mentioned are very likely valuable
for the former, but of comparatively little worth
for the latter, because the student is working with
types of matter and style which he will probably
never use. Thundering orations against Catiline,
soul-stirring appeals to arms, and " key-note'*
speeches are rarities. What everyday students of
public speaking may more profitably take as
models for study and practice are the best ad-
dresses delivered from day to day by doctors,
lawyers, engineers, business men and others who
are speaking in clinics, courts and lecture-halls;
at clubs, conferences and committee meetings.
A current newspaper file contains better material

6 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

for study than does a set of '^Masterpieces of
Oratory." I do not mean to say that great ora-
tions are not worthy of careful consideration, but
that they are clearly out of place as models for
the man who wishes to explain the workings of
a piece of mechanical apparatus, to give an ac-
count of the proceedings of a convention, to de-
liver an address on the drama, or to discuss the
merits of a product which he wishes to market.
What any speaker should first strive for is sub-
stantial material not brilliant imagery, clearness
not profundity, common enthusiasm not glowing
passion. As long ago as 1886, Thomas Went-
worth Higginson wrote in his "Hints on Speech-
Making," "Always speak in a natural key, and
in a conversational manner. The days of pom-
pous and stilted eloquence are gone by." So one
may dismiss the dread which arises from the mis-
taken idea that a speaker is expected to orate
after the manner of past-masters of the art.

III. Poor Preparation

The third cause for dread of speaking, poor prep-
aration, is the most important and at the same
time the most surely avoidable. It is of greatest
importance because the hardest task for a public
speaker is to face an audience without material
or plan. Such a situation is strikingly suggestive
of the time-honored "bricks without straw"

The Dread of Speaking in Public 7

proposition. Moreover, in this connection it is
well to point out that a speaker should always
have a definite topic for consideration. Nothing
is more apt to result in ineffective preparation
than a vague idea as to what one is going to talk
about. A person who proposes to discuss ^^some-
thing touching upon labor unions, international
arbitration and the minimum wage law" faces
an enormous task of investigation — sl task which
he will probably leave undone. Even any one
part of the above subject would be rather broad
and indefinite for the unpracticed speaker. Much
more adaptable to satisfactory preparation are
such clearly defined topics as, '^The Aims of Labor
Unions," "The Shortcomings of Labor Unions,"
"The Difiiculties of International Arbitration,"
"What International Arbitration Has Accom-
plished," "Why We Need a Federal Minimum
Wage Law," etc.

But let us suppose that a person has chosen a
definite topic and that he knows the great danger
of lack of preparation. Here is a critical juncture
at which speakers sometimes weaken, thereby
nurturing the feeling of dread. The weakness lies
chiefly in one or more of the following attitudes:
laziness, a forlorn hope of sudden inspiration or
of picking up material from other speakers, and
ignorance of how to prepare. The first two of
these may be dismissed with a brief comment.

S The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

Laziness is absolutely inadmissible in the lexicon
of the public speaker. If he knows his subject-
matter, well and good; if not, he must get it. As
for borrowing, or, better, stealing from fellow-
speakers on a program, the result can hardly be
expected to be other than a thing of shreds and
patches. Ignorance of how to prepare properly
is a really excusable cause for dread of speaking
in public and will require careful consideration in
a later chapter.

C. SUMICARY

In the foregoing pages we have noted that the
majority of people dread to speak in public. This
feeling is partly due to an expectation of ^^stage-
fright," which can be largely overcome by not
brooding over the supposedly terrifying occasion;
by realizing that an audience is ordinarily com-
posed of sympathetic and well-disposed persons;
and by a summoning of courage for the first few
attempts, which serve to accustom a speaker to
the situation. Another cause of dread, a faulty
idea of the speaker's task, is removed when the
speaker realizes that he is not expected, nor de-
sired, to follow the style of the masters of oratory,
but merely to talk in a straightforward and in-
teresting conversational manner. The last and
most important source of dread is obviated by
avoiding poor preparation, which is usually due

The Dread of Speaking in Public 9

to laziness, dependence upon inspiration or bor-
rowing, or ignorance of how to prepare. Before
considering the specific steps which are to be
taken in preparing for an address it is desirable to
get a thorough understanding of the purposes
and methods which constitute the foundation of
speech making.

CHAPTER II

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A SPEECH

A. The Divisions of a Speech

The person who wishes to acquit himself credit-
ably and to influence his hearers in modern speak-
ingy whether for social, professional or business
reasons, may not be particularly interested in
the names which the Greeks and Romans gave
to their divisions of an oration. And it does seem
rather immaterial except for historical purposes.
It is, however, desirable to know what successful
speakers of to-day aim to do in beginning an ad-
dress, in developing it, and closing it. Further-
more, it will be helpful to determine, as far as
possible, what means they use to realize their
aims. With these ends in view we shall, for con-
venience in discussion, divide the speech into the
well-known introduction, development or body
and conclusion.

B. The Functions of the Introduction

I. Gaining the Attention

The average audience to which a speaker ad-
dresses himself has many and varied interests

The Functions of the Parts of a Speech ii

as it awaits the opening words. A sick child, a
falling stock-market, an impending lawsuit, an
acrobatic fly on a bald head in the next row — any
number of things have already set up counter-
attractions before the speaker begins. With his
opening words the speaker interrupts the progress
of these various contemplations, and in the usual
settling that heralds the salutation he has the
momentary attention of the audience by virtue
of the situation itself. The dullest speaker im-
aginable will get the advantage of this sudden in-
terruption of the various trains of thought. A
preoccupied pedestrian is likely to glance upward
when a shadow crosses his path. Seeing only a
crow he will instantly revert to his interrupted
thoughts, but if he sees an aeroplane his attention
is arrested. Similarly, the critical moment in the
opening of a speech is not at the outset, but im-
mediately afterward. It is even possible that the
first three or four sentences may not be distinctly
heard amid the rustle of the settling process.
But these opening sentences should, of course,
be in preparation for that critical moment at
which the attention must be arrested.

II. Arousing the Interest

Having caught the attention, the speaker next
aims to arouse the interest of the audience before
attention lapses. When the above-mentioned

12 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

pedestrian looks up to see what caused the shadow
on the path, his train of thought is not dismissed;
it is only interrupted. If the object does not
interest him, his mind will revert to its former
occupation or will be attracted by some new sug-
gestion. So, when the speaker has gained the
attention he must not allow it to relax, but must
proceed at once to arouse an interest which dis-
places all other claims.

III. Presenting the Main Theme

With attention gained and interest aroused, the
speaker's next purpose is to present the topic idea
in such a way that the listeners will be prepared
to understand the succeeding discussion and be
favorably impressed with the speaker personally,
his attitude toward his subject, and his attitude
toward his audience.

IV. Transition to the Development

At this point comes the transition from the
introduction to the development of the topic.
Brevity is desirable here, and not the circumlocu-
tion, the backing and filling, the apparently aloof
manner with which some speakers approach the
substantial part of their discourse. This shying
at the barrier is sometimes due to mere loquacity
or ill-timed affection for anecdotes; sometimes
to a lack of knowing what point to begin with;

The Functions of the Parts of a Speech 13

but chiefly, I believe, to the fact that not all
speakers realize that the audience is eager to hear
the message, if there be one, and is readily bored
by indirectness or suspense at the transitional
point. Two or three sentences which serve to
lead directly and logically into the first phase of
the discussion are generally adequate and most
desirable.

C. The Functions of the Development

There are some people who can talk in public,
filling their allotted time and more, beginning
nowhere in particular and ending everywhere in
general. Obviously that is poor and ineffective
speaking. When a person makes an address with
a real purpose he should aim to produce certain
effects in each part, but since the body or develop-
ment is the most significant division, he should
give particular attention to its functions.

I. Emphasizing the Main Theme

Almost every good speech will have a central
idea which constitutes the speaker's message —
his chief reason for making the address. To keep
this central idea in the minds of the auditors is
the first aim to be observed. Various factors tend
to induce the speaker to violate this injunction,
but if the audience is permitted to become vague

14 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

as to the main theme, the effectiveness of the
speech is undoubtedly weakened.

II. Producing Conviction

A second purpose of the development is to
bring out a variety of facts, inferences, ideas, ex-
amples, illustrations, logical conclusions — ^all the
material of elaboration — ^in such a way as to im-
press the listeners with the soundness of the
central theme. In this way is built up the chief
aim in the development — conviction.

III. Establishing Distinct Salient Points

Again, the speaker aims in the body to develop
strong leading points, each one standing out clearly
in support of the chief message. At the same time
he strives to unfold the subject in such a way
that the audience cannot fail to understand not
only the bearing of each part upon the whole but
also the relationship of part to part.

IV. Holding the Listener^ Interest and Sympathy

Finally, in developing his topic the speaker
seeks to sustain and increase the interest of his
listeners as he proceeds. Moreover, at all times
he aims to hold their sympathy and to keep their
emotions sufficiently active to secure the proper
mingling of persuasion and conviction.

The Functions of the Parts of a Speech 15

D. The Functions of the Conclusion

Though the conclusion of an address might seem
to present a minimum of difficulty, one often
hears a speaker who is either unwilling or unable
to finish properly. It is the section which appears
to offer the greatest temptation to more or less
aimless loquacity. This is not altogether inex-
plicable. When a person has delivered the burden
of his address and triumphed over his initial ner-
vousness, or has interested and pleased his au-
dience, he is likely to experience a very noticeable
feeling of elation. With increased confidence and
a corresponding fiiuency of brain and tongue, an
inclination sometimes manifests itself to repeat,
to elaborate still further, to add details previously
omitted, or even to launch upon a new topic. Such
a prolongation is not in keeping with the true
function of the conclusion. Nor is it desirable,
on the other hand, to close abruptly, to take the
audience by surprise. A speaker who finishes his
address with the development of the final phase
of the discussion is apt to leave a confused or un-
favorable impression. He certainly does not take
advantage of the excellent opportunity which a
real conclusion affords, due to its position at the
end of the speech. The concluding part generally
remains most vividly in the listeners* minds. It is,
therefore, desirable that the speaker should avoid

1 6 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

wearying the audience with unwarranted prolon-
gation, or leaving it confused or dissatisfied by an
abrupt termination. With this caution against
two common shortcomings, we may turn to the
proper functions of the conclusion.

I. Rounding out the Speech

The speaker should aim in the conclusion to
convey the impression of completeness, of having
rounded out the address in a finished and satisfying
manner.

II. Clinching the Central Idea

The conclusion also affords an opportunity for
a final embodiment of the speaker's message in
such concise and untrammeled form that his listen-
ers will carry the essentials away with them.

III. Arousing Enthusiasm and Exhorting to Action

Finally, the speaker should try, whenever the
nature of the subject warrants it, to arouse en-
thusiasm for the views set forth. Although ever
mindful of the emotions of the audience, the
speaker has aimed chiefly in the development to
appeal to the mind, to convince. Now, having
established a foundation of conviction, he is in
a position to appeal more directly and intensely
to the emotions. At this point is afforded, also,

The Functions of the Parts of a Speech 17

the best opportunity to appeal for action in case
such a response is desired.

E. Summary

To sum up briefly, we have seen that each of
the three parts of a speech has special functions.
It should not be inferred from this that the speaker
is prohibited from striving in any given part for
certain effects which he seeks more especially in
another division. Indeed, it has been stated, for
example, that he should try to hold the interest
throughout the speech, and that he should keep
the emotions active in the development as well
as in the conclusion. But there are certain pur-
poses which are best served in the introduction
because of its position. The same is true of the
body and the conclusion. The introduction aims
to gain attention, arouse interest, present the
theme in a clear and appealing manner, and to
make a brief and logical transition to the body.
The body seeks to emphasize the main theme, to
elaborate convincingly the leading points which
support it, and to keep the sympathies of the
audience keen and its interest rising. The con-
clusion gathers up the threads of the discourse
into a satisfying whole, gives a final, penetrating
embodiment of the chief message, arouses en-
thusiasm for the views advanced, and, when feasi-
ble, exhorts to action.

CHAPTER III

INTRODUCING A SPEECH

There are several ways in which a speech may
be aptly and felicitously introduced with a view to
realizing the aims stated in the preceding chapter.
In choosing the type of introduction for a given
address the speaker should, in general, be gov-
erned by one or more of the following factors:
the time at his disposal, his own temperament,
the kind of audience addressed, the topic of dis-
cussion, the attitude of the audience toward the
speaker and subject, and the manner in which he
intends to develop his theme. Some of these
conditions require special consideration, but we
shall first discuss the methods which apply under
ordinary circumstances.

A. Collecting One's Forces

After the customary salutation of the presiding
officer, the speaker will do well to collect his forces
in silence until the room is quiet enough to permit
him to be heard distinctly. This will obviate two
faults of common occurrence. In the first place,
this moment or two of poising before the flight

Introducing a Speech 19

is calculated to prevent the speaker from uttering
hastily phrased sentences, in a breathless manner.
During the first instant of facing an audience,
only an experienced speaker has full command of
his language and feels physically at ease. Most
persons are momentarily unsteadied by the situa-
tion; the breathing is not under control and the
heart action is irregular. In this condition one is
apt to garble or express awkwardly even a care-
fully planned opening. A brief pause will remedy
this fault. In the second place, it will prevent
the speaker from wasting his introductory re-
marks in the subsiding murmur of the audience.
The loss of the opening words tends to create a
bad impression on the audience, and is further
unfortunate in that these words are usually essen-
tial to the full understanding or appreciation
of that which follows. The speaker, then, derives
distinct advantages by taking time to look over
his audience deliberately while getting his bear-
ings and awaiting silence.

B. Avoiding the Threadbare Apology

With the actual beginning of the address there
is apt to come a temptation to follow a wide-
spread and hackneyed convention — to apologize.
As was suggested in the first chapter, some men
begin to organize their apology as soon as they
consent to appear in public. In not a few instances,

20 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

to be sure, it is the most apt and convincing fea«
ture of their entire performance; but that is a
disgrace to the speaker rather than a tribute to
the apology. There may, of course, be a real
reason for asking the indulgence of the audience
on account of hoarseness, illness, lateness or some
other unavoidable shortcoming. The hoary cus-
tom of craving quarter on general principles, how-
ever, is one of the lamest means of getting under
way. It does not arrest attention; it does not
arouse interest; it does not tend to secure for the
speaker a favorable attitude on the part of the
audience; and it certainly has no bearing on his
subject-matter. What may, then, be used to best
advantage at the outset?

C. Effective Openings

I. Reference to Attendant Circumstances

If the circumstances attending the speaker's
presence on the platform are of especial interest
or significance, he may fitly open with comments
on the fact. Suppose, for example, the invitation
to speak had reached him at a distance and when
he was occupied with thoughts very different
from those of the present moment; this might
lead to a very interesting contrast. Or, if recently
he had spoken on a similar subject to a very dif-
ferent kind of audience, he might use this as the

Introducing a Speech 21

basis of an interesting comment on the various
groups who are working and thinking in different
ways toward the same ends. Again, if the speaker
has previously addressed the same body, he might
refer to his pleasure on that occasion, or comment
on the changes which have since occurred, af-
fecting the lives of those present. It is to be care-
fully noted that in using these, or any of the fol-
lowing openings, it is desirable to make the initial
remarks lead into the theme, just as the introduc-
tory bars of a good piece of music merge into the
opening of the melody proper.

II. Complimentary Opening

A second method of opening is by expressing
pleasure in the present opportunity, and deftly
complimenting the audience on the work they
are doing for the cause under consideration, or
the interest which they have shown in the subject
of discussion. This complimentary opening should
be used, however, with discretion. Too often it
is employed without reasonable warrant, and
even the most unpretentious audience has a quick
composite sense for the detection of flattery, in-
sincere compliment, or anything whatever that
is bogus. Probably many of my readers have
heard of the prominent politician who failed
lamentably in an effort to curry favor with an
uneducated New York audience by speaking in

ITf

EsK*"

rials rf Extempore Speaking

tf g compluneat is deserved hy

^;ff«l***i ij sincwely intended by the

Z 'i'^JutiiuK* * felicitous beginning.

-ttier, '* ^^uiiM"°*^ •* ^^Ips to create a

.■■^ *^riooship between speaker and au-

(*•*""' T^Kyu' compliment, on the contrary,

^^ \>i\, gff'^y *° ^* speaker's disad-

III. Xgrrstitt-Descriptive Opening

excellent means of opening is a brief

^t^|^^ description. A really good anecdote

"'^'""■tio* description of some significant object

'''**'" is one of the surest bids for attention and

^r*^ There is no doubt that audiences like

tP''?'*^peci*Ily. They liked them long before

' iLbhw* Speaker made such effective use of

f*^ ^yes, and it is safe to say that they will

f^^ respond to a lively ule.

«** ■ — *(.. Hpafn'ntJ-u-s of narTatlvc form of

e observed: first, the

vivid, in idea, word-

''; second, the main

:ion or word-picture

lie significance with

he discussion. The

his own descriptions

e, if be were to speak

Introducing a Speech 23

on the question of child labor he might open with
a concrete picture, not overdrawn, of a big Chi-
cago refrigerating plant on a broiling day in
summer; of massive doors which separate the
icy temperature within, from the terrific heat
without; of little boys of ten or twelve years, who
in operating these doors must undergo the enervat-
ing effects of this alternation of heat and cold.
In an entirely different tone, the following opening
of a recent biographical address suggests how
stimulating a simple description can be.

"One hot August day in 183 1, a gawky youth
of twenty-three could have been seen walking
along the streets of New York for the first time.
His clothes were patched and soiled, his coat
cuffs were far above his wrists and his pants
scarcely reached his ankles. A much worn hat
covered his head and all the worldly possessions
he was not at that moment wearing were tied in
a handkerchief and carried on a stick across his
shoulder. There was nothing about this youngster
to suggest that he would soon become one of the
greatest moral, intellectual and political forces of
his times. Yet this was Horace Greeley's arrival
in New York."

There is little diflSculty in selecting a fit subject
for portrayal when the descriptive opening seems
advantageous. Care should be taken, however,
to choose the most significant features in ordef

22 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

his shirt-sleeves. If a compliment is deserved by
the listeners and is sincerely intended by the
speaker, it constitutes a felicitous beginning.
Under such circumstances it helps to create a
pleasant relationship between speaker and au-
dience. The bogus compliment, on the contrary,
is apt to recoil, greatly to the speaker's disad-
vantage.

III. Narfative-Descriptive Opening

Another excellent means of opening is a brief
narration or description. A really good anecdote
or a striking description of some significant object
or scene is one of the surest bids for attention and
interest. There is no doubt that audiences like
stories especially. They liked them long before
that famous Speaker made such effective use of
the parables, and it is safe to say that they will
always respond to a lively tale.

In using the descriptive or narrative form of
opening, two things are to be observed: first, the
material should be fresh and vivid, in idea, word-
ing, and manner of delivery; second, the main
point involved in the narration or word-picture
should have an unmistakable significance with
reference to the topic of the discussion. The
speaker can readily construct his own descriptions
to fit his subject. For example, if he were to speak

Introducing a Speech 23

"One hot August day in 1831, a gawky youth
of twenty-three could have been seen walking
along the streets of New York for the first time.
His clothes were patched and soiled, his coat
cuffs were far above his wrists and his pants
scarcely reached his ankles. A much worn hat
covered his head and all the worldly possessions
he was not at that moment wearing were tied in
a handkerchief and carried on a stick across his
shoulder. There was nothing about this youngster
to suggest that he would soon become one of the
greatest moral, intellectual and political forces of
his times. Yet this was Horace Greeley's arrival
in New York."

There is little difficulty in selecting a fit subject
for portrayal when the descriptive opening seems
advantageous. Care should be taken, however,
to choose the most significant features in ordef

22 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

III. Narrative'Descriptive Opening

Introducing a Speech 23

There is little difficulty in selecting a fit subject
for portrayal when the descriptive opening seems
advantageous. Care should be taken, however,
to choose the most significant features in ordef

22 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

III. Narratwe-Descriptive Opening

Introducing a Speech 23

There is little difficulty in selecting a fit subject
for portrayal when the descriptive opening seems
advantageous. Care should be taken, however,
to choose the most significant features in ordel

22 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

III. Narrative'Descriptive Opening

Introducing a Speech 23

There is little difficulty in selecting a fit subject
for portrayal when the descriptive opening seems
advantageous. Care should be taken, however,
to choose the most significant features in ordef

22 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

III. Narrative'Descriptive Opening

Introducing a Speech 23

There is little difficulty in selecting a fit subject
for portrayal when the descriptive opening seems
advantageous. Care should be taken, however,
to choose the most significant features in ordef

24 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

that the picture may be vivid, and unobscured by
minor details.

In case the narrative is used, the speaker must,
as a rule, depend upon tales that he hears or reads.
But inasmuch as the humorous anecdote is most
favored for getting the audience in a proper frame
of mind toward speaker and subject, the problem
of finding effective narratives is comparatively
simple. The newspapers and periodicals are
sprinkled with humorous bits, many of them
bright, snappy and easily adaptable to a great
variety of subjects. While writing this para-
graph I glanced at the daily paper on my desk and
took at random the first anecdote that appeared,
running as follows.

"The late John Philip Quinn, who for twenty
years traveled all over America exposing the elec-
tric roulette wheel and other cheating devices
used in gambling, had a reform story that he
would tell while exhibiting his queer paraphernalia
in his private car. 'Don't be afraid of reform,'
he said; 'help every poor fellow who wants to
reform. The way most people act you'd think
they all believed religiously in the following re-
form story.* 'You stopped smoking because she
asked you to?' was the question put to a solemn
looking chap. 'Yep.' 'And you stopped swear-
ing because she asked you to?' 'Yep.' 'And
you gave up your poker parties and went into

Introducing a Speech 25

refined, serious society for the same reason?'
*Yep, yep/ *And yet you never married her!'
^Well, you see, after Pd reformed like that I
found I could do better.' "

To link the point of this story to the theme of
any reform discussion the speaker would need
only to say something to the effect that the X
association or the Y party has reformed, or is re-
forming, and is already aiming to do better. This
random anecdote merely serves to indicate a type
of narrative opening which puts an audience in
good humor, and foreshadows the point of the
address. In the papers and magazines are to be
found scores of such items, and it is a good idea to
clip the best of them and file them for use when
occasion arises.

IV. The Literary Reference

Another way of opening, akin to the narrative-
descriptive method and highly favored by good
speakers, is the literary reference. It may be an
allusion to a character, a scene, an incident, a
theory or a bit of philosophy in some poem, play,
novel or other literary work. The effectiveness
of this kind of opening is increased if the allusion
be to some well-known work, or writer at least,
for the average audience is pleased to recognize a
literary acquaintanceship. And such self-satisfac^
tion subtly reacts to the speaker's legitimate ad-<

26 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

vantage. The essential thing to be observed in
making a literary allusion, as in the use of all
illustrative matter, is that the point of reference
should be perfectly clear in its bearing on the topic
idea. The following introduction from President
Wilson's discussion of ^'Progress" illustrates the
manner in which a literary reference may fitly
open an address.

^'In that sage and veracious chronicle, ^ Alice
Through the Looking-Glass,' it is recounted how,
on a noteworthy occasion, the little heroine is
seized by the Red Chess Queen, who races her off
at a terrific pace. They run until both of them
are out of breath; then they stop, and Alice looks
around her and says, * Why, we are just where we
were when we started!' *0h, yes,' says the Red
Queen; 'you have to run twice as fast as that to
get anywhere else.'

''That is a parable of progress. The laws of
this country have not kept up with the change of
economic circumstances in this country; they
have not kept up with the change of political cir-
cumstances; and therefore we are not even where
we were when we started. We shall have to run,
not until we are out of breath, but until we have
caught up with our own conditions, before we
shall be where we were when we started; when
we started this great experiment which has been
the hope and the beacon of the world. And we

Introducing a Speech 27

should have to run t\^ce as fast as any rational
program I have seen in order to get anywhere
else."

V. Allusion to Timely Remark or Incident

Sometimes a timely remark, bit of conversation
or incident which involves one or more of the
factors of the subject under discussion affords a
very apt opening. A reference to something
which has been said by a previous speaker, or
in a recent conversation, puts the speaker at
once upon an easy and intimate footing with
his audience. Again, in these days of such a
multiplicity of news items, one can almost always
find an account of an interesting happening which
pertains to one's topic, whatever that may be.

D. Presenting the Subject

From any one, or combination, of the above
means of getting attention and arousing interest
the speaker may proceed to the presentation of
the topic idea. If the subject is complex, or un-
familiar to the audience, he may use any or all
of the following factors as a foundation for the
discussion proper: (i) an account of the significant
steps in the history of the subject leading up to
the present; (2) an analysis of the existing state
of affairs; (3) a careful explanation of the terms

28 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

of the subject; (4) a summing up of the exposi-
tory matter by a specific statement of the essen-
tial phases which must be discussed in order to
arrive at a satisfactory conclusion. How much,
if any of this exposition, need be used depends
upon the nature of the subject, the nature of the
audience, or both.

E. Introduction under Special Circumstances
I. Determined by the Subject

In some cases the essence of the whole speech
is historical or expository. Such, for example,
would be an account of a convention, a biograph-
ical address, or the explanation of a machine or a
manufacturing process. Obviously, little or no
introductory exposition would be required in
such a case to prepare the audience to understand
the subject. On the other hand, for certain com-
plex topics, particularly those which are argu-
mentative, the audience needs an explanatory
introduction in order to be able to judge with
understanding the merits of the ideas advanced
in the development of the address. A talk on
"The New York City School System," let us say,
might need for introduction only the appeal for
attention and interest. But the subject, "Should
New York City Adopt the Gary System?'' would

Introducing a Speech 29

require a careful elucidation of terms and condi«
tions.

II. Determined by the Audience

The nature of the introduction is further de-
termined by the audience addressed; first, in re-
spect to its understanding; second, with reference
to its attitude toward the subject. Naturally,
if a particular body of listeners is conversant with
the terms, general history and bearings of a sub-
ject, the speaker will be freed in great measure
from preliminary explanation. Indeed, any super-
fluous exposition would tend to weary, or perhaps
antagonize, the audience. On the contrary, if a
given audience is unacquainted with the general
subject for consideration, however simple it may
be, care must be taken to provide adequate
initiation.

Then as to the attitude of those addressed.
Sometimes an audience is so keenly interested in
a subject that any of the customary bids for at-
tention or interest are a waste of time, or even
out of place. In other cases there may be hostility
toward the speaker personally, or toward the views
which he is known to hold. The speaker must,
in that event, make an attempt at the very outset
to placate his hearers. To start out directly to
force his ideas down the very throats of an un-
sympathetic audience is likely to result disas*

30 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

trously. Brutus could tell the cobblers and car-
penters of Rome to keep still and hear what he
had to say, but Antony with his courteous ex-
planation of his presence got much the better of
the bargain. And what is of even greater sig-
nificance, the average modem audience, in spite
of points of similarity, is not to be mistaken for a
Roman mob. But while it cannot be bullied, it
is almost always favorably responsive to an ap-
peal for a fair hearing; or to a statement of earnest
desire to get at the truth of a vexed problem; or
to a modest plea setting forth the speaker's quali-
fication for venturing to discuss the topic; or to
an expression of sympathetic understanding of
the listeners' attitude toward the matter under
consideration. Probably some of my readers are
familiar with Henry Ward Beecher's successful
opening appeal for "fair play" in one of his anti-
slavery speeches, before an intensely hostile au-
dience in Liverpool. After speaking briefly of
his opposition to slavery, and of the Southern
leanings he had encountered in England, he said:
"If I do not mistake the tone and temper of
Englishmen, they had rather have a man who
opposes them in a manly way than a sneak who
agrees with them in an unmanly way. If I can
carry you with me by sound convictions, I shall
be immensely glad; but if I cannot carry you with
me by sound arguments, I do not wish you to go

Introducing a Speech 31

with me at all; and all that I ask is simply fair

play.'; ,

A similarly successful opening, which I recently
heard, was at the occasion of a '^ preparedness"
address by Major General Leonard Wood, U. S. A.
His introductory statements were to the effect
that no one was more earnestly desirous of peace
than military men — men who had taken part in
the making of war and were therefore most keenly
appreciative of the horrors of war. From this he
led into his central theme, a plea for preparedness
in order to prevent war. Although the audience
was largely composed of militant young pacifists,
General Wood was able by beginning with ex-
pressions of sympathetic understanding of his
listeners' attitude to gain a very favorable hearing.

When a speaker approaches a hostile audience
in one of the ways indicated above, he is usually
able to gain for himself and his views at least an
attitude of tolerance, without which he could not
continue with any hope of success.

F. Summary

This chapter has attempted to point out various
specific ways of introducing a speech to meet the
requirements of ordinary and special circumstances.
It was first noted that a deliberate pause before
opening gives the speaker a distinct advantage.

32 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

It was then urged that he avoid the conventional
apology, which fails to realize the aims of a good
opening. These aims were shown to be best served
by beginning with one or more of the following: a
reference to attendant circumstances, a sincere
compliment to the audience, a significant narra-
tion or description, a pertinent literary allusion,
a reference to a timely remark or incident.

After the opening, which is designed to interest
the audience and foreshadow the central idea of
the address, comes the presentation of the topic.
It was suggested that such exposition be used at
this point as the complexity of the subject or the
nature of the audience requires. The specific
means of exposition advocated, any or all of which
may be used, were : a historical review, a presenta-
tion of the general situation existing, a careful
definition of the terms constituting the topic, a
succinct statement of the salient phases to be
considered in the body.

The speaker was advised not to weary his au-
dience with superfluous exposition, nor to dwell
on pleasantries when the audience is intense about
the subject of discussion. For placating a hostile
assemblage, an appeal for a fair hearing, a state-
ment of earnest desire for truth, a modest claim
of adequate qualification to speak, or an expres-
sion of sympathy with the views of the audience
were proposed.

Introducing a Speech 33

The directions set forth in this chapter will, it
is hoped, provide for effectively planned introduc-
tions. And ordinarily the speaker will be suf^
ficiently advised as to the conditions which he
will meet to enable him to proceed as he has
intended. But he must always be prepared,
when he appears before an audience, to alter
his method of approach in case the immedi-
ate circumstances make a part or all of the
intended introduction seem inauspicious. If,
for example, an audience shows unexpected hos-
tility, he must vary an opening planned for
friendly listeners. Or, if he perceives, from
vacant faces throughout the crowd, that his lis-
teners are not as well informed as he had sup-
posed, he must simplify his language and amplify
his exposition. Again, if he has planned a leisurely
or humorous opening and is surprised by an in-
tense body of hearers, he should not hesitate to
cut down his prefatory remarks to the barest es-
sentials. In short, the speaker, following the
suggestions laid down in this chapter, will plan
his introduction to meet conditions so far as he
knows them; but he will study his audience from
the moment he faces it, and adapt his matter and
manner as occasion requires.

CHAPTER IV

THE MEANS OF SUBSTANTIAL DEVELOP-
MENT

In considering the methods of developing the
discussion of a subject one must be guided by the
fact that there are many kinds of speeches, aiming
at various ends. It is therefore obvious that no
one hard and fast plan of procedure for all ad-
dresses can be constructed. That would savor too
much of the famous Procrustean bed, to which all
captives were fitted by either stretching or lopping
oflF their limbs. Our plan of procedure must be
more elastic. But at the same time certain general
principles of construction can be formulated which
will help the speaker to realize the aims previously
stated; namely: to emphasize the main theme,
to elaborate convincingly and persuasively the
leading points which support it, and to keep the
sympathies of the audience keen and its interest
rising.

In order to effect these purposes, the essential
thing which the student of speaking should strive
for is clearly defined substance. How frequently
at dinners, clubs, churches, gatherings of all sorts,

The Means of Substantial Development 35

one hears speakers who are, perhaps, humorous,
witty, charming, interesting, but who leave noth-
ing ponderable after the echoes of their voices
have died away. If an auditor of one of these
speeches is later asked to tell what the speaker said,
he can only pause and with some embarrassment
reply that it was "something about forestry and
rainfall and that sort of thing. Oh, but it was
most entertaining." If only momentary enter-
tainment is the aim, of course, all is well. And
it is to be emphasized that even in speeches with
more serious purpose charm, wit and the like are
desirable qualities. But they must not be de-
pended upon for the bulk of such speeches. Let
them be called the soul or spirit of a speech, if
one pleases, but let us first provide for them a
body, a place of habitation. It has often been
remarked that "a speaker must have something
to say." This very good advice may well be
amended to "something to say in a clear and
definite form."

A. Determining the Main Theme

In order to give an address this clearly defined
substance, the speaker must first determine what
the chief purpose of his discourse is to be. In
Other words, he must establish his "text" or main
theme, and not be satisfied to string together
random comments on the general subject. If, for

36 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

example, his topic is '^Socialism," he should decide
what impression he wishes to create: that socialism
is not a practicable scheme; or that socialism will
solve the chief problems of modem society; or
that socialism aims to secure the greatest good
for the greatest number. I do not mean that every
speech is to be constructed along purely argumen-
tative lirfes. The speaker may at times be re-
quired, in all fairness, to present material which
makes against his main view; but in any speech
the dominant trend should be toward a definite
goal. Let us take as another sample topic some*
thing entirely foreign to the realm of argument:
"The Poetry of Robert Browning." Now, in
preparation for an address on this topic it would
be most desirable to select what seems to be the
most characteristic thing about Browning's poetry
and make that the backbone of the discussion.
It might be to show the dramatic quality of the
work, or Browning's knowledge of human nature.
Whatever the general subject of discussion may be,
a central theme conduces to clearly defined sub-
stance.

B. Supporting the Main Theme

Whenever it is possible to establish a leading
purpose, the development should consist of def-
inite points supporting that purpose. We may
illustrate with the theme idea, ^'Browning's poetry

The Means of Substantial Development 3^

shows a wide knowledge of human nature." Ta
give this leading proposition definite support we
should develop our discourse around some such
distinct phases as follow:

A. Browning knew the depths and shallows of
the lover.

B. Browning penetrated the secret thoughts and
motives of the criminal.

C. He comprehended the soul qualities of the
fanatic.

D. He knew the everyday man of affairs.

E. He understood the merits and the defects of
the patriot.

F. He had an appreciative sympathy for the
lonely and disheartened.

Similarly, if one were to speak on a topic as
remote from Browning's poetry as street-car
advertising, he should observe this principle of
definitely supporting the leading theme. Suppose
the chief purpose of his address was to impress
the audience that street-car advertising is a very
advantageous form of general appeal. To this
end, his elaboration should develop along these
lines :

A. Street-car advertising commands attention.

B. It arouses interest.

C. It has an enormous circulation.

D. It appeals at advantageous times*

E. It is relatively cheap.

38 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

From an address built up in the manner sug«
gested, the listener goes away not only with a
definite message, but also with clear and definite
reasons for believing it.

C Means of Elaboration

Of equal importance with definite leading ideas
is substantial material to support those ideas.
Any address which consists of leading points elab-
orated with mere talk, no matter how brilliant
the phrasing and diction, is open to the charge of
being "thin." When we state that Browning
understood the patriot, it is essential to bring to
the attention of the audience his poems dealing
with patriots; to indicate wherein and how he
expresses the characteristic thoughts, moods and
acts of the patriot. If we advance the idea that
street-car advertising is relatively cheap, we must
substantiate this claim by submitting rates, space,
term of service, and numbers reached, in compari-
son with similar data for other forms of general
advertising. Whatever point we advance we must
"make good." As will be pointed out, there are
several ways of making good, of substantiating,
our points. Sometimes one means will sufiBce;
again, a combination of two or three can be used
to best advantage.

The Means of Substantial Development 39

I. Specific Cases

It is safe to say that for convincing effect
no one method of elaboration equals the pres-
entation of a representative array of concrete
cases in point. If, for instance, in discussing the
topic, "England's Violation of Neutral Rights,"
the speaker states that she has interfered with
United States mails, his strongest support for
the contention would be the citation of specific
seizures and detentions. The following passage
from a contemporary speech by the Hon. Clyde H.
Tavenner, of Illinois, in the House of Representa-
tives gives a typical example of the telling use of
specific cases. Mr. Tavenner is contending that
the men back of the Navy League will profit by
the League's propaganda.

"Now I come down to the officers of the Navy
League to-day. The president of the league,
Col. Robert M. Thompson, the gentleman who was
unkind enough to threaten to sue me but not kind
enough to do it [applause on the Democratic side],
is chairman of the board of directors of the Inter-
national Nickel Co., the business of which, accord-
ing to the Wall Street Journal, has been very much
improved by the war.

" The directorate of the International Nickel Co.
interlocks with that of the United States Steel
Corporation, Edmund C. Converse sitting as a

40 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

director on both concerns. United States Steel
controls the bulk of the steel industry in this coun-
try, and is capitalized for $1,512,000,000, while
International Nickel controls the greater part of
the nickel lands of the North American Continent,
and is capitalized at $47,000,000.

"Col. Thompson, as president of the Navy
League, was a happy selection indeed, because the
steel, nickel, and copper interests, all of which will
profit handsomely through war and preparation for
war, interlock beautifully through him and his
International Nickel Co. W. A. Clark, the Mon-
tana ^copper king,' is president of the Waclark
Wire Co. and Col. Thompson is one of his directors
on that corporation. Then, too. Col. Thompson
is president of the New York Metal Exchange.

" Col. Thompson's International Nickel Co. also
interlocks with the Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co.,
W. E. Corey being a director of International
Nickel and president and director of the new Mid-
vale corporation, which was organized recently
for $100,000,000 especially to handle the growing
war-trafHcking trade, and is one of the largest
war-trading firms in the United States. Mr.
Corey only recently retired from the presidency
of the Carnegie Steel Co. and from the board of
directors of United States Steel. One of the under-
lying concerns of the new Midvale company is the
Remington Arms Co., which has a contract to

The Means of Substantial Development 41

manufacture 2,000,000 Enfield rifles for the British
Government.

"The International Nickel Co. also interlocks
with the Midvale concern through Ambrose Monell,
who is president of the International Nickel Co. and
a director of the Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co.

" Seward Prosser, another director of Interna-
tional Nickel, is one of the contributors to the
funds of the Navy League which have been used
to banquet Secretaries of the Navy and Members
of Congress, hire speakers, and carry on the elab-
orate campaign for * preparedness' which the Navy
League has been carrying on most earnestly for
the last 13 years, and which promises now to
bear 'fruit in the form of staggering increases in
Army and Navy appropriations.

"International Nickel also interlocks directly
with the United States Navy Department, through
W. H. Brownson, retired rear admiral, who is a
director of the International Nickel Co. and on
the pay roll of the Government at a salary of
$6,000 a year, which is three-fourths full pay.
* Who's Who' for 1914-15 gives Admiral Brown-
son's address as *Navy Department, Washington,
D. C Admiral Brownson is, no doubt, of more
value to the International Nickel Co. in Washing-
ton, where he comes into intimate contact with fel-
low naval officers, than he would be any place else."

An important point to note in the passage just

42 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

quoted is that Mr. Tavenner uses what I have
termed a "representative array" of examples.
One ought usually to cite at lease five or six typical
cases; the number will depend, of course, upon
one's success in a given investigation. But the
speaker is cautioned against trying to support an
important generalization with one or two instances,
unless he can show that these are fairly typical.

II. Antecedent Probability

Another method of supporting a point is by
elaborating on the basis of antecedent probability.
If under certain conditions a certain thing has
always happened, one may fairly prophesy that
with the same or very similar conditions substan-
tially the same thing will again occur. For ex-
ample, if the "Solid South" has gone democratic
for many years past, one may point to a similar
outcome in the next election providing no new
factor appears to offset antecedent probability.
The speaker must always be cognizant of the pos-
sibility of this new factor.

III. Analogy

It is possible to elaborate a point by showing an
essential similarity between two things which are
unlike in some respects. On the basis of this es-
sential similarity we may presume that both will
operate alike. For example, if we wished to show

The Means of Substantial Development 43

that a censorship of moving-pictures would be
futile, we might instance the failure of stage-
censorship as analogous. A classic and very-
striking use of analogy was Patrick Henry's ob-
servation, '^Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I his
Cromwell, and George III — ^may profit by their
example." In cases like the examples cited, the
analogy has a considerable convincing effect be-
cause the things compared resemble one another
so closely in their essential nature. But as the
essential resemblances between the analogues de-
crease, the convincing effect of the remaining simi-
larity decreases. An analogy between the evolu-
tion of a machine and the evolution of a butterfly
has only a decorative, or at best illustrative value.

IV. Efed to Cause

A pix)position may be developed in demonstrat-
ing the truth of a statement or the existence of a
phenomenon or state of affairs by arguing from
effect to cause. In using this method of elabora-
tion we prove the existence of one thing by call-
ing attention to the indisputable presence of some-
thing which is an invariable indication of the
former. For example, a flock of buzzards hovering
over a southern swamp is a sign of a carcass below.
The fact that people of all classes throughout the
country purchase more Ford cars than any other
make is a sign that these cars represent an excex>

44 '^he Essentials of Extempore Speaking

tional value for the price paid. When Patrick
Henry spoke the following words, he was using a
very potent argument from eflFect to cause :

"Ask yourselves how this gracious reception of
our petition comports with those warlike prepara-
tions which cover our waters and darken our land.
Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love
and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so
unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called
in to win back our love? Let us not deceive our-
selves, sir. These are implements of war and sub-
jugation, — the last arguments to which kings
resort. I ask, gentlemen, what means this mar-
tial array, if its purpose be not to force us to sub-
mission? Can gentlemen assign any other pos-
sible motive for it? Has Great Britain any enemy
in this quarter of the world to call for all this ac-
cumulation of navies and armies? No, sir, she
has none. They are meant for us; they can be
meant for no other. They are sent over to bind
and rivet upon us those chains which the British
Ministry have been so long forging."

Attention is directed to the way in which PatricL
Henry takes care to eliminate those factors which
might appear to be causes for the effect under con-
sideration. The speaker should, likewise, be sure
to satisfy his audience that the effect he con-
siders is produced by no other cause than the one
which he assigns.

The Means of Substantial Development 45

V. Cause to Effect

Development from cause to effect simply re-
verses the foregoing method of procedure. If a
certain cause has in the past produced a given
eifect, the speaker can from such an admittedly
existing cause predict its customary eflPect. Or
he may develop his point by showing a causal
relationship between two existing phenomena;
this development may, of course, proceed from
cause to eifect or vice versa. For example, in an
address attacking modern prison reforms, the
speaker might wish to elaborate the point, "Dan-
ger to Society." For this purpose he could present
the lenient, trustful attitude of the reform officials
toward prisoners; then point to the increasing
number of escapes from prisons of the reformed
type; and finally link the two phenomena by show-
ing a cause to effect relationship.

At this point it will not be amiss to emphasize
the danger of a common fallacy incident to this
method of reasoning. The readiness and conclu-
siveness with which the average person attributes
causes and effects is remarkable. "The high cost
of living is due to the tariff," says Smith; "to the
railroads," says Brown; "to the middleman,"
says Jones. Similarly, "The cause of the great
war was England's envy," says one; "No, it was
German militarism," says another; at which the

46 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

third and most muscular of the trio settles the
matter by declaring the cause of the war to be
Russian greed. Now the speaker must remember
that the Browns and Smiths and Joneses with
their own opinions are always present in the aver-
age audience. He will do well, therefore, to demon-
strate cause and effect with care, clearing away
fallacious relationships, and sometimes being con-
tent to establish a cause as contributory, or an
effect as partial.

VI. From General to Specific

A useful method of elaboration is the logical
sequence known as deduction. In deduction we
establish the status of a specific case by classifying
it under a general law or principle. The reader
is probably familiar with the syllogism, as the
formal process of deductive reasoning is called.

Major premise: All public nuisances should be
abolished by law.

Minor premise: The uncovered ash-cart is a
public nuisance.

Conclusion: Therefore, the uncovered ash-cart
should be abolished by law.

In writing or speaking we rarely express the
entire process; but when we say, "The uncovered
ash-cart should be abolished by law because it is
a public nuisance," we really use the deductive
process, omitting the obvious major premise^

The Means of Substantial Development 47

which the listener instinctively supplies. The
minor premise is also often omitted, as when we
say, ^^Fenton should have a public park, for every
city should have a public park." Even the con-
clusion is sometimes merely implied; for example,
^^ Every criminal should be brought to trial, and
certainly X is a criminal."

Thus, with the omission of one of the premises
or even the conclusion, we constantly use this
logical sequence in developing our ideas. The
chief reason for its frequent use is the fact that
well-established generalizations — and only such
should constitute the bases of deductions — are
the results of long experience, often a part of the
accumulated wisdom of generations or ages. It
is, of course, absolutely essential that an audience
accept the general statement, the major premise.
With that assured, however, the speaker has only
to show that the specific phenomenon falls under
the generalization, in order to establish an inevi-
table conclusion. Compared with the difficulty of
establishing the generalization itself, this task is
simple. A very clear case in point is found in the
work of a criminal lawyer, who, if he can prove
his client insane, frees him from responsibility
for the crime which he has committed. This is
often a diflScult proposition, but imagine the time
it must have taken to establish the major premise,
^*No insane person should be held accountable

48 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

for his crime"! It will be readily understood that
the speaker ought never to ignore the advantage
of deduction whenever it is applicable.

VII. Narration^Description

A considerable number of points can be devel-
oped wholly or in greater part by the narrative-
descriptive method. Sometimes narration is used
exclusively; sometimes only description. But
since the two are so frequently combined, it is
better to consider them together. Unquestion-
ably this method of elaborating a point or an en-
tire topic is the easiest one because the subject-
matter is practically self-arranged. Moreover,
each successive advance suggests the following
step while one is speaking. A schoolboy can
describe or narrate before he is able to undertake
with any success the more difficult tasks of exposi-
tion or argumentation. Incidentally, it is a very
good idea for beginners to serve their early speak-
ing apprenticeship with topics which permit of
the narrative-descriptive method of development.
Travel, biography, and the great variety of sub-
jects which lend themselves to historical treat-
ment belong to this category.

VIII. Definition

Definition, understood in a broad sense, is an
extremely important factor in elaboration. It

The Means of Substantial Development 49

ranges from a mere synonym, or dictionary ez^
planation, for a single word, to a detailed and
varied exposition of a complex idea. It is suffi-
cient to say that "definite" means "distinct,
clear-cut;" or, using the logical form, that a
triangle is a plane figure (genus) having three
sides (differentia). But whenever in his address
a speaker brings forward an unfamiliar or involved
concept or expression, he must employ more elabo-
rate means to make its meaning perfectly clear
to the audience. We shall therefore present some
of the most important methods of definition, con-
sidered as means of elaborating the points of a
discussion.

a. By Repetition

The meaning of a statement which the audience
does not seem to understand may often be made
clear by repeating the idea in a different form,
preferably in simpler terms. The repetition may
also be employed in such a way as to afford the
audience a new viewpoint. Again, new factors
may be added in a series of repetitions, each suc-
ceeding repetition contributing something and
embodying the gist of the preceding cumulation.
For example:

The government of the City of X is feudal rather
than democratic in its structure. That is, it is
dominated by an overlord and his political bench-

50 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

men. These feudal rulers of the City of X are
mulcting the people as of old to fortify and garnish
their own strongholds. Such an antiquated form
of public robbery should long ago have met with
determined suppression at the hands of enlightened
citizenship.

Of course the ordinary form of repetition with
a change of the wording or the viewpoint is usually
more applicable, but in case the cumulative
repetition can be used, it has the additional value
of gathering force as it moves forward, much as
the stream fed by tributaries.

b. By Comparison or Contrast

Comparison or contrast is another advantageous
means of defining. This method aims to make
the subject clear by showing its points of likeness
or dissimilarity to something which is already
familiar to the audience. Or, if the particular
thing under consideration is likely to be confused
in the minds of the listeners with some other
concept, a careful comparison of the two is de-
sirable, even though both be unfamiliar. Each
will be illuminated by being displayed in the
light of the other. Socialism and Anarchism,
Republicans and Progressives, Syndicalism and
Unionism, Conservatism and Radicalism, Science
and Art are suggestive of the types which invite

The Means of Substantial tJevelopment 51

and reward comparison or contrast. The follow-
ing passage from an address on literature by Pro-
fessor Brander Matthews illustrates the method:
"Art and Science have each of them their own
field; they have each of them their own work to
do; and they are not competitors but colleagues
in the service of humanity, responding to differ-
ent needs. Man cannot live by Science alone,
since Science does not feed the soul; and it is Art
which nourishes the heart of man. Science does
what it can; and Art does what it must. Science
takes no thought of the individual; and individ-
uality is the essence of Art. Science seeks to be
impersonal and it is ever struggling to cast out
what it calls the personal equation. Art cherishes
individuality and is what it is because of the dif-
ferences which distinguish one man from another,
and therefore the loftiest achievements of Art are
the result of the personal equation raised to the
highest power."

c. By Negation

Closely akin to the method just presented is
definition by negation; that is, by clearing away
false notions from the mind of the audience; by
explaining what the subject is not. Sometimes
negative statements are used exclusively until
the speaker has the ground cleared for the recep-
tion of the positive definition. Burke, in his

52 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

Conciliation speech, affords a typical illustratioa
of this particular form,

"The proposition is peace. Not peace through
the medium of war; not peace to be hunted through
the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotia-
tions; not peace to arise out of universal discord
fomented from principle in all parts of the empire;
not peace to depend on the juridical determination
of perplexing questions, or the precise marking
the shadowy boundaries of a complex government.
It is simple peace, sought in its natural course
and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace sought in
the principles of peace, and laid in principles
purely pacific. I propose by removing the ground
of difference, and by restoring the former unsus-
pecting confidence of the Colonies in the mother
country, to give permanent satisfaction to your
people; and, far from a scheme of ruling by dis-
cord, to reconcile them to each other in the same
act and by the bond of the very same interest
which reconciles them to the British government."

Again, negation and afi[irmation may be inter-
mingled, as in the following passage from Matthew
Arnold:

"But there is of culture another view, in which
not solely the scientific passion, the sheer desire
to see things as they are, natural and proper in
an intelligent being, appears as the ground of it.
There is a view in which all the love of our neigh*'

The Means of Substantial Development 53

bor, the impulses toward action, help, and benef«
icence, the desire for removing human error,
clearing human confusion, and diminishing human
misery, the noble aspiration to leave the world
better and happier than we found it, — ^motives
eminently such as are called social, — come in as
part of the grounds of culture, and the main and
pre-eminent part- Culture is then properly de-
scribed not as having its origin in curiosity, but
as having its origin in the love of perfection; it is
a study of perfection. It moves by the force, not
merely or primarily of the scientific passion for
pure knowledge, but also of the moral and social
passion for doing good."

d. By Concrete Example

One of the simplest, and at the same time most
effective, aids to definition is a concrete case in
point. Often when abstract statements about a
proposition fail to reach home, or when it is
desired to clinch an abstract presentation, a
single instance of the actual working of the theory
advanced will clarify the understanding of the
audience. The illustration may even be hy-
pothetical since it is employed for the purpose
of explanation, not conviction. Whenever pos-
sible, however, a real incident is preferable be-
cause it conveys the impression that the idea is a
practical, working one. The example must be

54 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

clearly to the point, and care must be taken never
to develop any illustrative feature to such an
extent that it distracts the mind of the audience
from the topic by overshadowing the idea which
the example is intended to illuminate. To ex-
emplify the use of the concrete case in definition,
let us suppose that the topic of discussion is
** Municipal Government/* and the particular
point to be defined, ^^Lack of Departmental G>-
operation." Either before or after his abstract
presentation, the speaker might say:

An instance happened a few days ago in X which
will serve to illustrate what I mean by lack of
departmental co-operation. A fire occurred in
one of the crowded sections of the city, and after
it was extinguished a great heap of drenched debris
was left in the street. Nearby residents brought
the matter to the attention of the street-cleaning
department, but owing to a city ordinance, this
department was unable to remove the refuse with-
out an order from the fire department. Soon
stray animals and vermin began to collect, and,
as it chanced, the city was at the time in the
throes of a children's epidemic. Naturally, the
attention of the health and police departments
was called to the matter; also further appeals to
the street-cleaning department were made by
incensed citizens. Still nothing was done. Finally,
after five days had elapsed, an irate shop-keeper

The Means of Substantial Development 55

in the neighborhood paid a truck-driver to haul
away the nuisance. That is what I mean by lack
of departmental co-operation.

e. By Details

One more means of definition may be cited: the
method of details. In following this method, the
general concept is elucidated by an analysis into
the specific factors which constitute the whole.
This analytical process may be applied to widely
diversified classes of subjects, such as a view, a
law, an action, a process, a structure, a principle,
or an object. Anything which is separable into
parts may profitably be subjected to detailed
analysis if the speaker judges that the effect will
be clearer or more impressive than that produced
by a general statement. The following excerpt
from Cardinal Newman's definition of a gentle-
man is a very good illustration of the method of
details.

^^ Hence it is that it is almost a definition of a
gentleman to say that he is one who never inflicts
pain. This description is both refined and, as
far as it goes, accurate. He is mainly occupied
in merely removing the obstacles which hinder
the free and unembarrassed action of those about
him; and he concurs with their movements rather
than takes the initiative himself. His benefits
may be considered as parallel to what are called

56 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

comforts or conveniences in arrangements of a
personal nature : like an easy chair or a good fire,
which do their part in dispelling cold and fatigue,
though nature provides both means of rest and
animal heat without them. The true gentleman
in like manner carefully avoids whatever may
cause a jar or jolt in the minds of those with
whom he is cast, — all clashing of opinion, or col-
lision of feeling, all restraint, or suspicion, or gloom,
or resentment; his great concern being to make
everyone at his ease and at home. He has his
eyes on all the company; he is tender toward the
bashful, gentle toward the distant, and merciful
toward the absurd; he can recollect to whom he
is speaking; he guards against unseasonable al-
lusions, or topics which may irritate; he is seldom
prominent in conversation, and never wearisome.
He makes light of favors while he does them, and
seems to be receiving when he is conferring. He
never speaks of himself except when compelled,
never defends himself by a mere retort; he has no
ears for slander or gossip, is scrupulous in imput-
ing motives to those who interfere with him, and
interprets everything for the best. He is never
mean or little in his disputes, never takes unfair
advantage, never mistakes personalities or sharp
sayings for arguments, or insinuates evil which
he dare not say out. From a long-sighted prudence
he observes the maxim of the ancient sage, that

rhe Means of Substantial Development 57

we should ever conduct ourselves towards our
enemy as if he were one day to be our friend. He
has too much good sense to be affronted at insults,
he is too well employed to remember injuries,
and too indolent to bear malice. He is patient,
forbearing, and resigned, on philosophical prin-
ciples ; he submits to pain, because it is inevitable,
to bereavement because it is irreparable, and to
death because it is his destiny."

It is of course patent that the detailed organiza-
tion of the above passage can hardly be paralleled
in extemporaneous speech; but the striking effect
of its finished elaboration suggests that in using
any method of definition the speaker may profit
greatly by being sure that the subject is clearly
defined in his own mind. Furthermore, it is de-
sirable that as far as possible he should determine
while planning his address the methods he will
use in defining the more important ideas. With
a knowledge of the various means of exposition
previously discussed, he may trust to impromptu
explanation of matters of minor importance.

D. SuiiiMARY

At the opening of this chapter it was pointed
out that no one detailed plan of procedure could
be suggested for handling the wide variety of
topics used by speakers. Certain general principles
of construction, however, which apply under any

58 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

circumstances, have been presented. It was em«
phasized at the outset that every topic should
be elaborated with clearly defined substance,
directed toward making a distinct and lasting
impression on the audience. The first step advo-
cated for this purpose was the selection of a main
theme, or central idea. The next requisite pro-
posed was the providing of leading points which
definitely support the main theme. The third
factor to be discussed was the methods of elaborat-
ing these leading points. They may be summed
up as follows: (i) by citing specific examples;
(2) by applying the principle of antecedent proba-
bility; (3) by using analogy; (4) by proceeding
from eflFect to cause; (5) or from cause to effect;
(6) by developing a point from the general to the
specific; i. e., by deduction; (7) by employing nar-
ration or description; (8) by definition in the
form of repetition, comparison or contrast, nega-»
tion, concrete example, or detailed analysis.

These eight methods, with the various modifica-
tions and combinations which will occur to the
speaker in working up a given subject, provide
adequate means for elaborating in substantial
manner a wide diversity of topics. We may now
turn to methods of arrangement which will further
help the speaker to realize the ends sought in the
body of the discussion.

CHAPTER V

ARRANGING THE MATERIAL

Concerning arrangement, as was stated of sub-
ject-matter, it must be understood that no one
method will fit all speeches. Nor is it likely that
any one address will follow a single plan through-
out the entire development. The speaker can
ordinarily lay out the main headings, or ^Hrunk
lines," of a given discourse according to the one
method which seems best calculated to carry his
message as a whole. But in the arrangement of
subordinate parts, he must feel free to employ
such various methods as fit those parts. Some of
these methods, which may be termed logical, are
inherent in the particular kind of subject-matter
discussed; others are based upon psychological
relationships; still other methods depend neither
upon logic nor psychology, strictly speaking, but
are arbitrarily designed for special effects.

A. Logical Methods of Arrangement

I. Cause and Effect

Arrangement based on cause and effect is used,
as the name implies, when discussing causal rela-

6o The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

tionships. The essential thing to observe in
employing this method is the avoidance of the
confusion which is likely to result from moving
backward and forward between cause and effect.
It is usually possible to obviate this shortcoming
by completing the discussion of the cause or the
effect, as the case may be, before proceeding to
the other factor. Notice how this is exemplified
in the following passage from Carlyle's "Essay
on Burns."

"Picturesque tourists, all manner of fashionable
danglers after literature, and, far worse, all manner
of convivial Maecenases, hovered round him
[Bums] in his retreat; and his good as well as his
weak qualities secured them influence over him.
He was flattered by their notice; and his warm
social nature made it impossible for him to shake
them off, and hold on his way apart from them.
These men, as we believe, were proximately the
means of his ruin. Not that they meant him
any ill; they only meant themselves a little good;
if he suffered harm, let him look to it! But they
wasted his precious time and his precious talent;
they disturbed his composure, broke down his
returning habits of temperance and assiduous
contented exertion. Their pampering was baneful
to him; their cruelty, which soon followed, was
equally baneful. The old grudge against For-
tune's inequality awoke with new bitterness in

Arranging the Material 6l

their neighborhood; and Bums had no retreat
but to *the Rock of Independence/ which is but
an air-castle after all, that looks well at a distance,
but will screen no one from real wind and wet.
Flushed with irregular excitement, exasperated
alternately by contempt of others, and contempt
of himself, Bums was no longer regaining his
peace of mind, but fast losing it forever. There
was a hoUowness at the heart of his life, for his
conscience did not now approve what he was
doing."

11. Chronological Order

The chronological or time order is applicable
whenever the subject-matter is concerned with
events in sequence. It may be well to note that
constant and explicit references to the details of
chronology are very apt to produce a dry, me-
chanical effect. For instance, a month by month
or year by year development if at all prolonged,
and particularly if the time and not the essence
of the events is made prominent, would fatigue
the most long-suffering audience. Another thing
to beware of is the confusion which results from
jumping backward and forward in chronology.
The speaker may profitably take advantage of
time order in arrangement but he should avoid
the pitfalls of the method by moving constantly
forward, and by bringing out the significance

62 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

of the events, with a corresponding subordina-
tion of the mere chronological details unless
they be of especial importance. The following
brief outline will serve to suggest how time order
may furnish the basis of arrangement for various
topics.

The Anthracite Coal-Strike of 1902

A. Introduction (The Basic Conditions).

B. The Beginning.

C. The Development.

D. The Climax.

E. The Settlement.

F. Conclusion (Significance for the Future).

III. Space Order

Space order applies chiefly to descriptive mat«
ter, but may be useful whenever the subject of
the speech, or any part of it, deals with material
which can be conveniently treated on a basis of
space relationship. The regular and most orderly
plan of development is to select a significant point
of departure, such as center, top or bottom, end,
nearest or farthest location, and proceed with the
parts, objects or places in the order of their posi-
tion in space. A typical instance of the regular
space order is afforded by a passage from Scott's
description of Cedric the Saxon.

Arranging the Material 63

**His face was broad, with large blue eyes, open
and frank features, fine teeth, and a well formed
head, altogether expressive of that sort of good
humor which often lodges with a sudden and
hasty temper. Pride and jealousy there was in
his eye, for his life had been spent in asserting
rights which were constantly liable to invasion;
and the prompt, fiery and resolute disposition of
the man had been kept constantly upon the alert
by the circumstances of his situation. His long
yellow hair was equally divided on the top of his
head and upon his brow, and combed down on
each side to the length of his shoulders : it had but
little tendency to grey, although Cedric was ap-
proaching to his sixtieth year. His dress was a
tunic of forest green, furred at the throat and
cuffs with what was called minever — a, kind of
fur inferior in quality to ermine, and formed, it is
believed, of the skin of the grey squirrel. This
doublet hung unbuttoned over a close dress of
scarlet which sat tight to his body; he had breeches
of the same, but they did not reach below the lower
part of the thigh, leaving the knee exposed. His
feet had sandals of the same fashion with the
peasants, but of finer materials, and secured in
front with golden clasps."

Such a directly progressive arrangement makes
for clearness of visualization on the part of the
audience. However, a word of caution is desirable

64 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

against following regular space order blindly. li
the speaker judges that any given object or scene
could be more strikingly depicted by using another
method, say the order of relative importance, or
association of ideas, he should not hesitate to
employ it. Indeed, for creating a general impres-
sion, an appreciation of "atmosphere," it is better
to select suggestive details, without reference to
regular space order. The effectiveness of this
method is clearly exemplified in Washington
Irving*s picture of the Stratford sexton's cottage.
"His dwelling was a cottage looking out upon
the Avon and its bordering meadows, and was a
picture of that neatness, order and comfort which
pervade the humblest dwellings in this country.
A low whitewashed room, with a stone floor care-
fully scrubbed, served for parlor, kitchen, and
hall. Rows of pewter and earthen dishes glittered
along the dresser. On an old oaken table, well
rubbed and polished, lay the family Bible and
prayer-book, and the drawer contained the family
library, composed of about half a score of well-
tiiumbed volumes. An ancient clock, that im-
portant article of cottage furniture, ticked on the
opposite side of the room, with a bright warming
pan hanging on one side of it, and the old man's
horn-handled Sunday cane on the other. The
fire-place, as usual, was wide and deep enough to
admit a gossip knot within its jambs."

Arranging the Material 65

A more harmonious combination of arbitrarily
grouped details could hardly be imagined. The
effect is highly artistic. When, however, a speaker
desires to convey a more definite, or better, a more
photographic idea of the relationship of parts,
space order is preferable. It is of great advantage
also when the topic lends itself to an analysis
based upon space divisions, such as the following.

New York State Farming

A. Introduction.

B. The Northern Counties.

a. East.

b. Middle.

c. West.

C. The Middle Counties.

D. The Southern Counties.
£• Conclusion.

rV. Predetermined Analysis

A fourth logical plan of arrangement is based
on a predetermined division of the subject. This
method is applicable when the subject of discus-
sion is a resolution or measure consisting of dis-
tinct clauses. Unless the subject-matter requires
special arrangement, such as procedure from
simple to complex or less important to more im-
portant, the speaker will do well to take up the

66 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

clauses in the order of their appearance in the
measure under consideration. For example, an
enactment known as the "Widows' Pension Law'*
has just been passed. Reduced to its simplest
form, it contains four provisions:

" I. It gives $20 SL month to all Civil War widows
who were married to their husbands during their
husband's service.

"2. All widows of veterans who have now reached
or may reach the age of seventy years will receive
$20 a month.

"3. All widows of Civil War veterans who were
dropped by reason of their remarriage, and who
again became widows, either by reason of the
death of their second husbands or by divorces,
for which they were not to blame, will be restored
to their pensionable status.

^% The limitation on mamages is extended 15
years, from 1890 to 1905. This extension of 15
years, it is hoped, will include the great mass of
those who married their husbands after the pas-
sage of the act of 1890."

Such an analysis constitutes a very serviceable
basis for the arrangement of material in a speech
which essays to discuss each section of an itemized
measure.

Arranging the Material 67

B. Arrangement on a Psychological Basis

I. Simple or Familiar to Complex or Unfamiliar

If a given topic involves phases which are com-
paratively familiar, or simple, easily compre-
hended, and others which are unfamiliar, or
complex and difficult to grasp, it is desirable to
proceed from the known to the unknown, from
the simple to the complex. In using this plan the
speaker not only avoids mystifying or discourag-
ing his audience at the outset, but he also prepares
it, as he proceeds, to understand matters of in-
creasing complexity. The same principle which
governs the arrangement of material in an arith-
metic may well be applied to speech-material. A
talk on popular elections, for example, might
begin with a discussion of the town-meeting, pro-
ceed through municipal, county, and state elec-
tions, and finally arrive at an exposition of the
manner of choosing the national executive.

II. Association of Ideas

Association of ideas constitutes the basis of
one of the most advantageous and commonly used
methods of arrangement. Many discussions which
do not lend themselves to the time, space, simple
to complex, or other method of procedure are
effectively carried forward by the impetus of sue-

68 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

cessive suggestions. That is, point A suggests
point B, which in turn suggests point Q etc.
The field of suggestiveness or association of ideas
comprises, among other things, contraries, such
as black — ^white, Protestant — Catholic, Republi-
can — ^Democrat, ancient — ^modern; also habitually
linked phases or phenomena, such as intellectual —
physical — spiritual, labor — capital — consumer, up-
per classes — ^middle classes — Slower classes,
cost — ^power — speed — endurance (of a machine).
The other evening a very capable salesman
furnished me with a practical application of
arrangement by association of ideas. I asked
him the price of one of his phonographs. He
stated the price, and proceeded to compare the
prices of rival instruments, which were some-
what less expensive. This fact led him to a dis-
cussion of the greater beauty and volume of
tone in the machine which he was selling. His
talk then turned naturally to an explanation of
the superior construction and operation of the
reproducing appliances. This phase brought to
mind the question of records and the great ad-
vantage of his phonograph in that respect.

Success in applying this method depends in no
small degree upon the skill with which the speaker
leads one phase into the next. It should be done
in such a way that the sequence A-B-C-D, etc.,
appeals to the audience as a most natural one.

Arranging the Material 69

The secret lies, first, in a little careful thinking
which seizes upon the essential points of contact
between the various phases of a discussion; and,
second, in a well-phrased indication of these points
of contact as a guarantee that the audience will
see the connection as the speaker has thought it
out.

C. Arrangement for Special Effects

I. Special Interests

The speaker may choose arbitrarily to open
the body of the discussion with a phase which
he thinks will be of particular interest to his lis-
teners. This would be especially desirable when
a given audience is known to be more concerned
about a certain aspect of a question than about
others equally important, perhaps, from a broader
viewpoint. Under such conditions it would be
unwise to try first to interest one's auditors in
points which they felt were of minor significance.
For example. New York City to-day is agitated
by the question of a railroad right of way along
a water-front. There are three important phases
involved: the legality of the matter, the material
advantage to the public and the road, and the
aesthetic aspect. To certain people the last
phase is of such overwhelming significance that
they are inclined to dismiss any other considera*

70 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

tion with more or less scorn. In addressing such
a group it would be highly desirable to arrange
one's material so as first to satisfy their paramount
interest. After that they might be more effect-
ively attentive to the other important considera-
tions. This point regarding arrangement suggests
a very noteworthy principle of public speaking
which will be touched upon later; namely: that the
speaker should always develop his address with
a keen appreciation of what the audience may be
thinking and feeling about the subject.

II. Submerging Minor Points

It is advantageous, whenever feasible, to place
the least significant or most weakly supported
points in the middle of the development. In
that position they are least likely to leave an
unfavorable impression. And inasmuch as it is
necessarily the fate of certain points to be in a
measure submerged in the mass, the weaker ones
deserve it. In following this suggestion the
speaker is cautioned not carelessly to permit it
to take precedence over the principles of arrange-
ment based on logic and psychology. It would
ordinarily be unwise, for instance, to distort time
or space order, or to disturb the progress of asso-
ciated phases merely for the sake of burying a
relatively unimportant point. However, the
method under consideration can almost always be

Arranging the Material 71

employed to good advantage when the question
of order is largely one of placing for emphasis.
To illustrate, we may take such a set of points as
was suggested for the support of the street-car
advertising topic:

A. Street-car advertising commands attention.

B. It arouses interest.

C. It has an enormous circulation.

D. It appeals at advantageous times.

E. It is relatively cheap.

Now, the above arrangement is, perhaps, no
better than several others. If for his particular
purpose the speaker judges that points D and E
are weakest, he should shift them to the positions
of B and C. Then, of course, he would develop
the points in such a way as to make them cohere
to the phases before and after. The illustration
is typical of many groups which may profitably
be arranged in accordance with the plan of sub-
merging minor considerations.

III. Placing the Most Important Phase

We come now to the paramount feature of ar-
bitrary arrangement. This is the placing of the
most important phase of the discussion. Owing
to the fact that the material at the close of the
body is left in the minds of the audience unen-
cumbered by other points, the speaker ought to
make a special effort to present here the chief

72 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

consideration. In discussions which permit of
such flexible adjustment as was illustrated in the
preceding paragraph this arrangement is an easy
matter. But where the topic lends itself best to
a plan of arrangement based strictly on, let us
say, time, space, or association of ideas, there may
be some difiiculty in placing the most significant
phase in the position of emphasis. It can be done,
however, without giving a noticeable effect of
distortion or incoherence. Take, for example,
the outline previously suggested in the discussion
of time order:

The Coal Strike of 1902

A. Introduction (The Basic Conditions).

B. The Beginning.

C. The Development.

D. The Climax.

E. The Settlement.

F. Conclusion (Significance for the Future).
Let us suppose that by far the most important

phase chances to be "The Development." The
speaker may treat it briefly in its proper time
order and then recur to it again just before the
conclusion with some such introduction as fol-
lows: Of the various phases upon which I have
touched, one period stands out as the most mo-
mentous: the period which witnessed the acts of
unbridled lawlessness on the part of the men, and

Arranging the Material 73

of intimidation on the part of the operators. We
have already considered this phase in a general
way, but a more detailed examination is essential
to a full appreciation not only of its actual results,
but also of its implications, etc. Such a method
of treatment is widely applicable, and since it is
of undoubted value to get the emphatic phase at
the close of the discussion, it should be freely
employed.

D. Summary

In this chapter we have considered the different
methods of arrangement available for various
topics and aims. It was pointed out that while
no one method would ordinarily be used for the
development of a subject in every detail, a con-
sistent plan of procedure for the main divisions is
best calculated to drive home the speaker's mes-
sage. Sub-heads may then be arranged according
to various other methods as may seem fitting.

The methods of arrangement were presented in
three groups. The first of these, termed logical,
comprises: (i) the cause and effect method, which
provides for handling causal relationships; (2) time
order, which presents material in a direct chrono-
logical sequence; (3) space order, adapted to the
development of topics which involve place rela-
tionships; and (4) arrangement following pre-
determined analysis, for use in discussing an item'-

74 T^^ Essentials of Extempore Speaking

ized proposition or measure. The second group,
called psychological, comprises: (i) the method
of proceeding from the familiar, or simple, to the
unknown, or complex; and (2) procedure by suc-
cessive suggestions, a method based on association
of ideas. The third group comprises three sugges-
tions for placing certain points in the most ad-
vantageous positions: (i) by opening the body
of the speech with a phase of predominant in-
terest to a given audience; (2) by submerging
minor, or least strongly developed, points in the
middle of the discourse; and (3) by placing the
most significant phase, or recurring to this phase,
at the close of the body.

It would be an exaggeration to claim for ar-
rangement as important a place in speech con-
struction as for subject-matter. A comparison
with architecture, however, presents a fair anal-
ogy: you must first have the material to build
with, but it makes a vast difference to the struc-
ture how you arrange that material. Later on
when we take up the subject of building an out-
line, the force of this analogy will be even more
obvious.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUDING A SPEECH

Having before us the various possibilities for
introducing, developing, and arranging the ma-
terial of an address, we shall now consider how
it may be terminated in such a way as to realize
the aims of the conclusion. These may be briefly
restated as follows: to give an impression of com-
pleteness; to establish finally the central idea; to
arouse enthusiasm for the speaker's views; and
to stimulate action, if active response is desired.

A. The Effect of Completeness

Sometimes, owing to limitation of time or re-
striction of his topic, a speaker deems it unwise
to touch upon every important phase of the gen-
eral subject of discussion. Under such circum-
stances the audience, failing to divine his reason,
may get the impression that the speaker has pur-
posely evaded certain issues. Or it may feel that
he has not been fully aware of the possibilities
of the subject. This undesirable impression will
ordinarily be provided against in the introductory
analysis; but if the speaker has any doubt about

76 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

the matter when he reaches his concluding sec*
don, he should take care to explain any significant
omission.

The next step toward rounding out the address
may be taken by using one or both of the follow-
ing means. The first of these is a succinct restate-
ment of the leading points which have contrib-
uted to the support of the main theme. Such a
resume is not always necessary, especially if the
speech is brief and the points are reiterated in the
development. The second means, which may take
the place of the resume or be used in conjunction
with it, is a general statement indicating how the
speaker has tried to view fairly the various factors
involved, and to concern himself with the various
interests affected.

B. Clinching the Central Idea

Thus briefly, but without abruptness, the
speaker leads up to the highly important final
statement of the central purpose of his address.
This should be expressed in such clear, unham-
pered, and emphatic form that no individual in
the audience can fail to be impressed by it.

C. The Emotional Appeal

Now comes the opportunity, providing the
topic of the speech warrants it, to apply the mes«

Concluding a Speech 77

sage directly to the audience; to show how their
material interests, or their rights, patriotism,
fellow-sympathy, sense of justice, self-respect, ap-
preciation of good, disapprobation of evil — how
any of these things are related to the speaker's
message. Sometimes, for practical purposes, the
appeal is necessarily or desirably restricted to a
utilitarian motive. For instance, this would or-
dinarily be the case, in urging a committee to
grant the speaker's company a paving or construc-
tion contract. But whenever the development
of the speech has enlisted the sympathies of the
listeners, they will be emotionally prepared to
catch the enthusiasm of the speaker, particularly
if they feel that he is sincerely moved by an ele-
vated feeling. For example, an address opposing
further restriction of immigration, after develop-
ing the subject with respect to industry, health,
morals, standard of living, etc., might be advan-
tageously closed with an emotional appeal to
generosity, fellow-sympathy, or the maintenance
of our traditional hospitality. Or, should the
speaker advocate further restriction, his closing
appeal might be to the sense of justice to Ameri*
cans, who must suffer from a further importation
of questionable foreign characters. The close of
Burke's "Conciliation" speech affords an apt
concrete illustration of what is meant by this
appeal to the emotions in the application of the

78 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

message to the audience. After a development
which has built up solidly the material reasons for
a conciliatory attitude toward the G>lonies, Burke
says:

''As long as you have the wisdom to keep the
sovereign authority of this country as the sanc-
tuary of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated
to our common faith, wherever the chosen race
and sons of England worship Freedom they will
turn their faces toward you. The more they mul-
tiply, the more friends you will have. The more
ardently they love liberty, the more perfect will
be their obedience. Deny them participation of
Freedom, and you break the sole bond which
originally made, and must still preserve the unity
of the Empire. Do not entertain so weak an
imagination as that your registers and your
bonds, your affidavits and your sufferances, are
what form the great securities of your commerce.
Do not dream that your letters of office and your
instructions, and your suspending clauses are the
things that hold together the great contexture of
this mysterious whole. These things do not make
your government. It is the spirit of the English
Constitution, which, infused through the mighty
mass, pervades, feeds, unites, invigorates, vivifies
every part of the Empire, even down to the
minutest member.

''Is it not the same virtue which does every-

Concluding a Speech 79

thing for us here in England? Do you imagine,
then, that it is the Land Tax Act which raises
your revenue? that it is the annual vote in the
Committee of Supply which gives you your army?
or that it is the Mutiny Bill which inspires it with
bravery and discipline? No! surely no! It is the
love of the people; it is their attachment to their
government, from the sense of the deep stake
they have in such a glorious institution, which
gives you your army and your navy, and infuses
into both that liberal obedience without which
your army would be a base rabble, and your navy
nothing but rotten timber.

''All this I know well enough will sound wild
and chimerical to the profane herd of vulgar and
mechanical politicians, who have no place among
us, — a sort of people who think that nothing exists
but what is gross and material and who, there-
fore, far from being qualified to be directors of
the great movement of empire, are not fit to turn
a wheel in the machine. But to men truly initiated
and rightly taught, these ruling and master prin-
ciples, which in the opinion of such men as I have
mentioned have no substantial existence, are in
truth everything and all in all.

''Magnanimity in politics is not seldom the
truest wisdom; and a great empire and little minds
go ill together. If we are conscious of our situa-
tion, and glow with zeal to fill our place as becomes

8o The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

our station and ourselves, we ought to elevate
our minds to the greatness of that trust to which
the order of Providence has called us. By advert-
ing to the dignity of this high calling, our ancestors
have turned a savage wilderness into a glorious
empire, and have made the most extensive and
the only honorable conquests not by destroying,
but by promoting the wealth, the number, the
happiness of the human race. Let us get an
American revenue as we have got an American
empire. English privileges have made it all that
it is; English privileges alone will make it all
that it can be."

D. Exhorting to Action

Occasionally the speaker will aim at an active
response to his words. In this case his final
sentences may specifically exhort to action: to
ballot for the candidate advocated; to contribute
to the cause espoused; to vote for the adoption
of the measure proposed. In such an appeal for
action it is especially advantageous for the speaker
to arouse fervor, directing his attention not
merely to the audience as an impersonal body,
but also to individual members here and there.
If he can make Mr. A and Mrs. G and Mr. Y be-
lieve and feel that the cause he pleads is their
cause, that their real support as well as theii

Concluding a Speech 81

sympathy is essential to the cause, they wiA
reach for their pocket-books. And when that is
accomplished the well-known psychology of the
crowd will take care of the rest.

E. SUMUARY

To sum up, we have seen that the purposes of
the conclusion are best served in the following
ways: (i) by taking care to explain any omission
of important phases connected with the subject,
and by restating the main points supporting the
central theme, and indicating how all factors and
interests have been duly considered; (2) by giving
a final emphatic embodiment of the chief message;

(3) hy applying the message to the audience in an
appeal to their most vital interests involved; and

(4) by pointing out, when occasion requires, how
these interests may be served by action, and
stating specifically what that action should be.

With the possible exception of the final states
ment of the chief message, any or all of the other
steps suggested may be omitted in concluding a
given address. I should not like the reader to
accuse me of advocating an emotional appeal in
concluding an expository speech on Coal Tar
Products, or of recommending an elaborate resume
at the close of a pleasant after-dinner talk. I
think I may safely rest my case, however, with

82 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

the statement that the particular combination
and adaptation of concluding factors must be
determined by the nature of the subject, the au-
dience addressed, and the particular aim of the
speaker.

CHAPTER VII

PREPARATION FOR A SPEECH

A. General Preparation

With a fair understanding of aims and methods
in speech-making, we are in a position to consider
the actual preparation for an address. As may
have been inferred from the preceding chapters,
the foundation of good speaking rests upon a
person's sum total of knowledge and experience.
His acquaintance with art, politics, history, geog-
raphy, sociology, commerce, music, literature,
industry, as well as his experience with men and
affairs are a part of the speaker's stock in trade.
At any time they may afford an apt illustration,
or even constitute the fundamental structure of
his entire address. The greater his fund of knowl-
edge, however acquired, the more material he
has to bring to bear upon any given subject. It
is supposed by some that only those with an
academic education are capable of making good
speeches. True it is that at least a practical
knowledge of granrnia? and rhetoric is usually
requisite. Moreover, the academically trained

84 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

person is likely to be more familiar with the literary
graces of composition. But in general, intelli-
gence, broad information and experience are the
things which form the basis of speech-making;
and of these the schools and colleges certainly
have no monopoly. A well-stored mind, then,
should be the primary aim of every serious stu-
dent of speaking. And with the ample facilities
offered to-day in schools, lectures, newspapers,
magazines, and public libraries no one should find
difficulty in obtaining such a foundation.

B. Specific Preparation

Whatever the amount of general information a
person may possess, there are certain steps which
he must take in preparation for a public address.
If he is to talk on a subject about which he is
already well-informed, the preliminary work is
reduced, essentially, to selecting and arranging
his material. But in comparatively few cases is
the average man sufficiently versed in his subject
to forego the first step in preparation for a speech —
investigation.

I. Investigation

Investigation may be divided into two classes:
direct and indirect. The first consists of a per-
sonal examination of the matter to be discussed.

Preparation for a Speech 85

An engineer who inspects a building upon which
he is to report, or an artist who visits a picture
gallery about which he is to lecture uses the direct
method. Whenever the conditions warrant, such
an investigation is clearly most advantageous.
But in order to make profitable observations the
investigator must be fairly familiar with the gen-
eral subject under examination. A man must
know considerable about bridges, for example, if
he is to report upon a personal investigation of a
particular structure. Moreover, in the great ma-
jority of cases, the speaker Is obliged, on account
of the physical impossibility of direct investiga-
tion, to gather his material from secondary sources;
that is, to use the indirect method.

a. Making a Bibliography

The first thing to do is to locate the sources of
information on the subject under consideration.
No time should be lost in desultory wandering
through library stacks, or in random leafing over
of magazine pages. For books on any subject
the card-indexes of libraries should be consulted.
The speaker should also acquaint himself with
such general bibliographical works as Sonnen-
schein's **The Best Books," and Kroeger's "Guide
to the Use of Reference Books." Frequently the
matter under investigation appears under titlea

86 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

somewhat different from the key-word of the
specific topic. If, for instance, the topic is, ''The
Development of Aeronautics," the investigator
will do well to look through the card-indexes and
general bibliographies for works on aerial naviga-
tion, flying-machines, balloons, dirigibles, aero-
planes, hydro-aeroplanes, monoplanes, biplanes,
Zeppelin, Wright brothers, etc. Whatever the
subject may be, the bibliography should include,
for purposes of rapid scanning at least, all titles
found which relate closely to the subject of dis-
course. Later, the investigator may enlarge his
list of books by taking advantage of cross-refer-
ences, i. e., the foot-note citation of sources by
the various authors consulted. The reader should
also take note of any bibliographical lists which
may appear in the books he is examining. If the
number of references becomes formidably large,
it is well to remember that an ample collection of
sources is more likely to afford just the material
needed by the speaker than is a meager one. And
it is a simple matter to select only the most
promising items for careful examination should
time be limited.

For references to periodical literature, the in-
vestigator should consult "The Readers' Guide to
Periodical Literature," and "The Supplement to
the Readers' Guide." These indexes, which are
to be found in most of the up-to-date libraries,

Preparation for a Speech 87

direct the reader to all the important articles which
appear in the current magazines. Each month
the indexes list under alphabetically arranged
headings the titles of the articles and the specific
references to the publications containing them.
At regular intervals the references are recumulated
for one year and ten year periods. As in examin-
ing card-indexes, the reader should look up all
headings closely related to the specific topic of
research.

Besides the references obtained from card-
indexes, general bibliographies, and guides to
periodical literature, there are a number of stand-
ard publications which constitute valuable sources
of information for a wide variety of subjects.
Among the more important and easily accessible
of these are: (i) such compilations as "The World
Almanac," "The Statesman's Year Book," "The
Century Book of Facts," and "Information";
(2) such reports as "The Record of the Proceed-
ings of the House of Representatives," "The
Report of the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion," and reports of various commissions on
labor, wage-investigation, immigration, etc.; (3)
encyclopaedias, such as "The Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannica," "The New International Encyclopaedia,"
"The Dictionary of National Biography," (Eng-
lish), and "The American Dictionary of National
Biography"; (4) trade-organs and special publica-

88 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

tions, such as '^Printers' Ink" (advertising organ),
I'Thc Publishers' Weekly/' "The Scientific Amcr-
ican" (science and engineering), ''The Drjr Goods
Economist," ''Motor" (automobiles and motor-
boats), "The library Journal," and "The Busi-
ness Digest."

Finally, it is to be noted that many public
libraries are continually making bibliographies
on various topics, and are always glad to be of
service to the earnest investigator.

b. Reading and NoU-Taking

The second step in investigation, or one which
may be taken as the bibliography is being com-
piled, is reading and note-taking. Most people
have ideas about a great many subjects, but in
many instances these ideas are too vague for
effective public expression. And what is more
important, they are frequently unconvincing be-
cause they are inadequately supported by facts.
Reading and note-taking should, therefore, aim
to accomplish three things: to clarify and define
one's own ideas, to get more ideas about the topic
in question, and to collect material to support and
elaborate these ideas.

The guiding principles in reading and note-
taking should be economy of time and effort,
combined with thoroughness. Even a moderate
sized bibliography affords a large mass of material

Preparation for a Speech 89

of varying worth. Nevertheless, if time permitSi
the investigator ought to glance at each item
noted in his list, taking advantage of tables of
contents and indexes wherever possible. By this
rapid view some items may be discarded as value-
less, and the most promising volumes and articles
selected for careful examination and note-taking.
People differ somewhat in their methods of
collecting data, but the essentials for carrying out
the principles stated above are comprised in the
following plan. In reading the first article or
volume on a given subject, the investigator will
note certain outstanding ideas, salient points.
The subject of each of these points should be writ-
ten on a separate card or sheet, which will serve
as a place for all the material bearing on this par-
ticular point in all items subsequently examined.
Suppose, for example, a person is preparing a
talk on "The Plays of Henrik Ibsen." The first
article read emphasizes, let us say, Ibsen's revolu-
tionary staging, his limited casts, and his untheat-
rical dialogue. This furnishes the reader with
three cards, headed respectively, "Staging,''
"Casts," and "Dialogue," and each containing
the most important observations of the writer
on these points. The next article may dwell on
Ibsen's staging, social theories, and unhappy end-
ings. The observations on staging will be noted
on the "staging" card, and new cards will be

90 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

made for the two new points. By following out
this system with each item of his bibliography,
the investigator will have, at the completion of
his reading, a card or group of cards for each im-
portant point. Every card or group will contain
the selected ideas or facts contributed by the
various sources consulted.

Reading and note-taking calls for discriminating
judgment, which will increase with practice. Some
people still accept as valid anything which ap-
pears in print, but the discriminating investiga-
tor will take into consideration each writer's
opportunities and capacity for securing and pre-
senting reliable information. Moreover, he will
view with particular caution sources which are
likely to be influenced by prejudices or personal
interests. Judgment must be used also in the
selection of material from the mass and in deter-
mining what to read and what to pass over.
Over-elaborate notes are, perhaps, preferable to
scanty ones, but the beginner should beware of a
common tendency to waste time in reading ir-
relevant matter, and compiling a cumbersome
mass of notes which a little more thoughtfulness
would avoid. The most significant passages may
be taken verbatim; but most of the desired ma-
terial may preferably be reduced to brief summary
statements. In all cases, citations should be ac-
companied by a careful reference to volume and

Preparation for a Speech 91

page of the source, for possible subsequent use.
Furthermore, it is important that notes be written
on only one side of the sheet or card in order that
any group of material may be placed in its en-
tirety under the eye when the time comes for
making the outline.

c. Adjusting the Notes

With his reading and note-taking completed,
the speaker arrives at the third step in his investi-
gation, the adjustment of the notes. If he has
followed the plan advocated in the preceding
section, this process is greatly simplified. For,
instead of having a large mass of unsorted ma-
terial, his points are clearly defined, and the
supporting data all ready classified. It remains
to review carefully the various card headings for
the purposes of separating into parts any headings
which seem to comprise two or more distinct
phases, and of uniting any headings which may
be substantially identical. This review should
provide also for the shifting of data in case cer-
tain notes can be used to better advantage under
headings other than those to which they were
originally assigned.

II. Outlining

As the speaker has proceeded in his work of in-
vestigation he has, naturally, been turning the

92 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

subject over in his mind, revising or confirming
previous ideas about it, adding new thoughts,
and strengthening his grasp of the whole matter.
But now, with the completed notes before him,
he should carefully study his material with a
view to making an outline of his speech. Let us
suppose that he has been investigating the sub-
ject of industrial arbitration, and that his cards,
or card groups, contain data on fourteen points, as
follows : Capital and Labor Opposed, Strikes, Past
Accomplishment of Industrial Arbitration, Diffi-
culties of Industrial Arbitration, Boycotts, Con-
stitutionality of Industrial Arbitration, Benefits
to be Derived from Industrial Arbitration, For-
eign Experience with Industrial Arbitration, Lock-
outs, Violence, Public Attitude toward Industrial
Arbitration, Non-interference in Industrial Dis-
putes, Compulsory Federal Arbitration Laws,
State Arbitration Laws.

We are now ready to build the framework of
the speech, and our first effort should be to deter-
mine from the material before us just what the
central theme is to be. What is the chief purpose
of speaking? What main conviction do we want
to impress upon the audience? Since the speaker
must keep the central theme uppermost in his
mind throughout the address, it is of great im-
portance to establish it as the core of the outline,
around which the leading points will be assembled.

Preparation for a Speech 93

To continue with the illustration already given,
let us suppose that the speaker has concluded
from a careful review of the notes that the pre-
ponderance of evidence points toward the need of
a compulsory Federal arbitration law for the
settlement of industrial disputes. To show such
a need, then, is the main purpose of his address,
and his rough outline stands as follows:

Industrial Arbitration

A. Introduction.

B. Capital and Labor not Opposed.

C. Strikes.

D. Past Accomplishment of Industrial Arbitra-

tion.

E. Difficulties of Industrial Arbitration.

F. Boycotts.

G. Constitutionality of Industrial Arbitration.
H. Benefits to be Derived from Industrial Ar-
bitration.

I. Foreign Experience with Industrial Arbitra-
tion.
J. Lockouts.
K. Violence.

L. Public Attitude toward Industrial Arbitration.
M. Non-interference in Industrial Disputes.
N. Compulsory Federal Arbitration Laws.
O. State Arbitration Laws.
P. Conclusion.

94 'I'he Essentials of Extempore Speaking

In this typical rough outline it is to be noted
that there is no indication of proper co-ordination,
subordination, arrangement, or detailed elabora-
tion. Nevertheless, such a rough assembling of
points is an invaluable factor in the organization
of speech material. Whether the rough outline
follows an elaborate investigation, or is jotted
down in the event of speaking on short notice,
it gives a tangible basis for an organized plan.
The next step is to co-ordinate, subordinate, and
arrange in such order as will most effectively drive
home the central theme. Mindful of the material
at our disposal, and of the aims and methods set
forth in the earlier chapters, we work out for our
illustrative topic this second draft:

Industrial Arbitration

Purpose: to show the need of a compulsory
Federal arbitration law.

iTitroduction
Capital and Labor not Inherently Opposed.

Body

A. Past Experiences in Industrial Arbitration.
L In Foreign Countries.
II. In America.

a. Voluntary Efforts.

b. State Laws.

Preparation for a Speech 95

B. The Difficulties of Industrial Arbitration.

I. The Question of Constitutionality.
II. An IndifFecent Public Opinion.

C. The Working of the Non-interference Policy.

I. Strikes.

a. Violence.

b. Intimidation.
II. Boycotts.

III. Lockouts.

D. Solution of Problems in a Compulsory

Federal Arbitration Law.

Conclusion

Benefits to be Derived from Such a Law

From this second draft a final revision may be
made which will elaborate in greater detail the
various steps by which each point is to be de-
veloped. But the practical speaker will rarely
take the trouble to do this, and if he has a thor-
ough grasp of his material, it is not at all neces-
sary. He has a definite purpose before him in the
main theme, and has mapped out the chief plan
of procedure by which he is to try to lead his au-
dience to understand and concur with his views.
The beginner may possibly find it advantageous,
for the first three or four speeches, to elaborate
his outline in greater detail. While thinking his
address through, or talking it over aloud in private,

96 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

it is a simple matter to set down on paper the
minor features of the development. But before he
faces his audience he should focus his attention
on some such general plan as that presented above.
The extempore speaker grows in power, not by
leaning upon a memory burdened with cumber-
some outlines, but by cultivating the ability to
develop his themes from a vital grasp of broad
essentials.

C. Summary

We have noted in this chapter that a person's
general preparation for speech-making consists
in acquiring a fund of knowledge and experience.
The more extensive and clearly defined this is,
the greater are his possibilities for able speaking.
Specific preparation comprises two factors: in-
vestigation and outlining. Investigation may be
direct when the conditions warrant personal ex-
amination of the subject of discussion; or indirect,
which is much more common, when the speaker
must secure his material from secondary sources.
The first step in secondary investigation is to
compile a bibliography from all available sources,
which include library card-indexes, general biblio-
graphical works, special bibliographies, cross-refer-
ences, and indexes to periodical literature. For
certain kinds of topics, the bibliography should
include also the standard periodical compilation^

Preparation for a Speech 97

of facts, reports, encyclopaedias, and publications
devoted to special interests. In addition, biblio-
graphical assistance may be obtained, when needed,
from public libraries. The second step in investi-
gation is reading and note-taking, for the pur-
poses of clarifying the speaker's ideas about his
subject, adding other ideas, and securing material
for their elaboration and support. The method
employed in reading and note-taking should ob-
serve economy of time and effort, combined with
thoroughness. The investigator should take every
advantage of tables of contents, indexes, and
topical headings, both for the rapid locating of
pertinent material, and the avoidance of that
which is irrelevant or comparatively unimportant.
In collecting data he is cautioned against care-
lessly encumbering his notes with useless matter.
A further saving of time and effort is effected by
taking notes in some such systematic manner as
was suggested in this chapter. The third step in
investigation is the adjustment of the notes to
the end that each card, or card group, presents
a definite, unified point, and that all material
appears under its proper heading.

The second factor of preparation is outlining
the speech. The rough draft consists of a list of
all the points bearing upon the topic which the
speaker can assemble. Studying his material he
then decides upon the central theme or main

98 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

purpose of his address. It then remains to co-ordi-
nate, subordinate, arrange, and fill in such de-
tails of elaboration as may seem desirable. The
resultant draft completes the more substantial
part of the preparation, and we may now turn to
matters more especially concerned with form of
expression.

CHAPTER VIII

EFFECTIVE STYLE IN SPEECH COMPOSITION

Practically every writer on public address, in-
cluding not only the ancients like Cicero and
Quintillian but also the most modern writers like
Robinson and Winans, urge the necessity of both
intellectual and emotional appeal. The various
writers may diflFer as to the relative importance of
conviction and persuasion, but they all agree that
an address which is either cold, dry and me-
chanical, or wholly emotional is usually ineffective.
It is indeed hardly to be questioned that a speech
which makes no attempt to awaken the sym-
pathies must ordinarily leave an audience indif-
ferent; but in speaking to-day before the average
intelligent audience a lack of real convincing
substance is, undoubtedly, even a greater short-
coming. For this reason special attention has
been given in the foregoing chapters to the basic
matters which make for understanding and con-
viction on the part of the audience. At the same
time, the discussion of aims and methods has in-
corporated much pertaining to the persuasive
element because conviction and persuasion must

icx> The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

move hand in hand. The idea that the body of
a speech should contain only convincing matter,
and that the conclusion should embody the entire
persuasive factor disregards human nature. We
are not effectively convinced unless persuaded;
nor are we truly persuaded unless convinced.
Moreover, the notion that conviction lies wholly
in the substance of a speech, and persuasion en-
tirely in the form of expression is erroneous. So,
in dealing with style, wherein form is emphasized
more than substance, we are concerned not only
with persuasion but also with conviction.

It is not an uncommon thing to hear a speaker
who has an abundance of excellent speech-material,
but who fails to make an effective address because
he presents it poorly. Cicero went so far as to
observe, '^It is a great matter to know what to
say and in what order to say it, but to know how
to say it is a greater matter still." Perhaps the
relative importance of form and substance has
altered since the days of the great Roman, but it
is still necessary to cultivate a style of speaking
which shall present our material effectively both
to the minds and the sympathies of our auditors.
Each individual will, naturally, possess certain
personal characteristics of expression, and as far
as these meet with good results they are to be
developed. One man, like Grady, has an unusual
descriptive faculty; another, like Macaulay, is

Effective Style in Speech Composition loi

especially effective in the use of balanced struc-
ture; a third, like Roosevelt, possesses a marked
capacity for forceful phrasing. But the student
of speaking must first acquire the basic qualities
of a good style of expression, irrespective of any
individual traits. The essentials of such a style
are unity, coherence^ clearness and force . These
old friends of our rhetoric days are "true" if not
always "tried," in the sense of being employed.
But they are neglected at the expense of the
speaker; for in whatever respects the style of
address may have changed throughout its history,
practical speaking has never profitably parted
company with unity, coherence, clearness and
force because the essential workings of the human
mind have not changed. In order to think def-
initely and conclusively, a person must concen-
trate upon one thing, and proceed from beginning
to end with clearness and logical sequence — a,
process which in itself is forceful.

A. Unity

In its uncontrolled activities the mind does,
indeed, make curious jumps at times — ^from Cana-
dian reciprocity to string beans to bishops; thence
to the thought of an uncomfortable collar only to
alight, perhaps, upon a contemplation of Wagner's
immortal Ring Cycle. But while such a disunified
series is in some respects interesting, it has the

I02 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

vital defect that it does not get us anywhere with
anything. It is really surprising that speakers
should so often be guilty of a lack of unity which
differs from the illustration just cited in degree
rather than in kind.

The man who speaks in public could hardly
make a more useful resolution than never to force
an audience to "wonder what he is driving at."
Not only should there be no straying from the
subject of the discourse as a whole, but the dis-
cussion of each phase of the topic must constantly
and obviously bear upon the specific point in
question, avoiding confusion with other aspects
of the subject. If one is talking on "Canadian
Reciprocity," for example, every section of the
development should lend itself to a summary state-
ment which clearly contributes something to the
main theme respecting Canadian reciprocity.
Furthermore, the discussion of any particular
phase, such as the effect upon the farmers of the
United States, should be strictly confined to that
point, without encroaching upon any other phase,
such as the effect upon Canadian manufacturers.
It is quite likely that this observance of unity
will shorten many a speech by eliminating inconse-
quential padding, side-line excursions into allied
fields, and confusing repetitions incident to the
ill-advised use of the same material under two or
more points. However, a reduction of the quan*

EflFective Style in Speech Composition 103

tity of the average speech, accompanied by a
corresponding improvement in quality, would be
one, or rather two, of the most felicitous things
that could happen to this much abused art.

The following excerpt from Professor G. Lowes
Dickinson's discussion of the means by which a
League of Peace might effect its purposes offers a
typical example of unity. Particular attention is
directed to the way in which the opening and
closing sentences definitely introduce and ter-
minate the idea of the passage. Note also how
l;he substance of the entire matter can be summed
up in a single statement. After the observation
that the combined military force of the League
might be employed against an offending member.
Professor Dickinson says :

"Military force, however, is not the only weapon
the powers might employ in such a case; economic
pressure might sometimes be effective. Suppose,
for example, that the United States entered into
such a league, but that she did not choose, as she
wisely might not choose, to become a great mili-
tary or naval power. In the event of a crisis
arising, such as we suppose, she could, neverthe-
less, exercise a very great pressure if she simply
instituted a financial and commercial boycott
against the offender. Imagine, for instance, that
at this moment all the foreign trade of this coun-
try were cut off by a general boycott. We should

104 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

be harder hit than we can be by military force.
We simply could not carry on the war. And
though, no doubt, we are more vulnerable in this
respect than other countries, yet such economic
pressure, if it were really feared, would be a potent
factor in determining the policy of any country.
It is true that no nation could apply such a boy-
cott without injuring itself. But then the object
is to prevent that greatest of all injuries, material
and moral, which we call wan We can then im-
agine the states included in our league agreeing that
any offender who made war on a member of the
League, contrary to the terms of the treaty, would
immediately have to face either the economic
boycott or the armed forces, or both, of the other
members. And it is not unreasonable to think
that in most cases that would secure the observ-
ance of the treaty.'*

B. Coherence
I. Coherent Thought

As to coherence, there are two considerations:
thoughts must be presented in reasonable se-
quence; and the verbal expression must indi-
cate their relationships. In discussing unity it
was observed that the uncontrolled mind often
passes rapidly through a disunified series of sub-
jects. Similarly, with respect to coherence, the

Effective Style in Speech Composition 105

casual, glancing attitude of mind is apt to view
any one subject in a chaotic manner. For ex-
ample, what an inconsequential series of ideas are
suggested to the average man when the subject,
"Free-Trade," is mentioned! Probably he thinks
of prices of food and clothing, foreign trade, Eng-
land, the effect on farmers, trade-rivalry, domestic
production, cost of living, encouragement of home
industry, effect on manufacturers, the steel indus-
try, the reduced price of IngersoU watches in
Europe, etc. All these thoughts are in varying
degrees pertinent to the subject, but no definite-
ness of understanding, no conclusions regarding
the merits or disadvantages of free-trade can be
reached by developing the foregoing incoherent
jumble. The desired effect requires an orderly
progression of ideas, a growth or forward motion
by which not only each phase prepares for or leads
into the next, but also in which the thoughts con-
stituting the elaboration of each subdivision shall
develop in the same logical way.

II. Coherent Expression

With coherence of thought as a basis, the
speaker is enabled to make his expression cohere,
i. e., link together. Even in writing, one should
use all possible means to make sentence relation-
ships explicit. Much more necessary is this ex-
plicit indication of relationships in speech, where

io6 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

no opportunity for deliberation is afforded to
those who are following the thought. Fortunately,
the secret of coherent expression is easily grasped,
providing always that the thoughts follow one
another in logical sequence. To a great extent
this secret inheres in the use of these connectives :
(i) the use of a word employed in the preceding
sentence, as is exemplified by the word "secret"
in the beginning of this sentence; (2) a synonym
or pronoun for a word used in the preceding sen*
tence; (3) a word which sums up an idea expressed
in the preceding sentence; (4) a conjunction
which shows an addition or opposition to the
thought in the preceding sentence, such as "and,"
"moreover," "but," "however," "nevertheless";
(5) a phrase, clause, or participial expression
which connects a sentence with the preceding one
by indicating a relationship of time, place, degree,
manner, or circumstance, such as, "at this time,"
"on the contrary," "under such circumstances,"
"while this was happening," "what that in-
volved," "when this was accomplished," "dis-
regarding the opportunity," "disgusted with such
an arrangement," etc.; (6) an adverb of time, place,
degree, manner, or circumstance; (7) a transi-
tional sentence, which aims to summarize broadly
a preceding section and to introduce a new phase.
Of course, it must not be understood that such
connectives are serviceable for every sentence;

Effective Style in Speech Composition 107

even if they were, their invariable use would tend
to produce a rather unpleasing, academic effect.
But whenever they do serve to express a relation-
ship easily and accurately, they may be employed
to good advantage. In the subjoined passage
from one of John Bright's speeches, notice how
the connectives tie the thoughts together into a
flowing, readily-followed whole. The speaker
has just stated that the constant shortage of
cotton is due to the insufficient increase of labor
in the Southern States.

"Now, can this be remedied under slavery?
I will show how it cannot. And first of all, every-
body who is acquainted with American affairs
knows that there is not very much migration of
the population of the northern states into the
southern states to engage in the ordinary occupa-
tions of agricultural labor. Labor is not honorable
and is not honored in the South, and therefore
free laborers are not likely to go south. Again,
of all the emigration from this country [Eng-
land] ... a mere trifle went south and settled
there to pursue the occupation of agriculture;
they remained in the North, where labor is honor-
able and honored.

"Whence, then, could the planters of the South
receive their increase in labor? Only from the
slave-ship and the coast of Africa. But, fortu-
nately for the world, the United States govern-

lo8 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

ment has never yet become so prostrate under
the heel of the slaveowner as to cx>nsent to the
reopening of the slave-trade. Therefore, the
southern planter was in this unfortunate position :
he could not tempt, perhaps he did not want,
free laborers from the North; he could not tempt,
perhaps he did not want, free laborers from Eu-
rope; and if he did want, he was not permitted to
fetch slave labor from Africa. Well, that being
so, we arrived at this conclusion — ^that whilst the
cultivation of cotton was performed by slave
labor, you were shut up for your hope of increased
growth to the small increase that was possible
with the increase of two and one-half per cent per
annum in the population of the slaves, about one
million in number that have been regularly em-
ployed in the cultivation of cotton. Then, if the
growth was thus insufficient, — and I as one con-
nected with the trade can speak very clearly upon
that point — I ask you whether the production
and the supply were not necessarily insecure by
reason of the institution of slavery?

'^It was perilous within the Union. In this
country we made one mistake in our forecast of
this question: we did not believe that the South
would commit suicide; we thought it possible that
the slaves might revolt. They might revolt, but
their subjugation was inevitable, because the
whole power of the Union was pledged to the

Effective Style in Speech Composition 109

maintenance of order in every part of its domin-
ions.

"But if there be men who think that the cotton
trade would be safer if the South were an inde-
pendent state, with slavery established there in
permanence, they greatly mistake; because, what-
ever was the danger of revolt in the southern
states whilst the Union was complete, the possi-
bility of revolt and the possibility of success would
surely be greatly increased if the North were
separated from the South, and the negro had only
his southern master, and not the northern power,
to contend against."

C. Clearness

The third fundamental of a good style of speak-
ing is clearness. It is not enough to concentrate
on one topic and to proceed coherently; each
thought unit must be clear. That clearness of
thought is essential to clearness of expression has
frequently been pointed out. But it is a truth
which cannot be over-emphasized. If we wish to
convey an idea to others, we must first grasp it
without a suspicion of vagueness. The explana-
tion of most of the vague, self-contradictory, or
fatuous discussions which one so frequently hears
lies in muddled thinking rather than in poor
speaking. Any uncertainty as to the significance
of a fact, the aptness of an illustration, or the

no The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

relationship of thoughts is an index of confusion,
and is almost sure to result in unclear expression.
On the other hand, a clear perception of such
matters conduces to clarity of expression. It
remains then only to present one's thoughts with
simplicity and directness.

I. Simplicity

It would be an error, of course, to underestimate
the attention which these two qualities require
before they become habitual with the speaker.
But the task is greatly lightened by getting the
right idea from the start, and thus escaping the
pitfalls which yawn for those who set out with a
false sense of values. An ability to use big words
and high sounding phrases, for example, is some-
times deliberately and unfortunately cultivated.
The use of such words as "ratiocination," "post-
prandial," and "ebullient," when "thinking,"
"after-dinner," and "lively," would express the
ideas, may inspire awe in the "unskillful" but
"it cannot but make the judicious grieve." Not
that the principle of clearness requires the avoid-
ance of all large or unusual words. If a polysyl-
labic word of Latin origin, like " circumvallation,"
a technical term, such as "electrolysis," or even
a foreign expression, like "denouement," or
"Zeitgeist," is requisite to express the speaker's
exact idea, he should feel free to employ it — ^witb

Effective Style in Speech Composition ill

such explanation as may be necessary. But to
seek such words, or to strain for " elegance'* by
turning every "big fire" into a "disastrous con-
flagration," every "funny reply" into a "titillat-
ing rejoinder" is a great mistake. In a word, the
speaker should aim to use the simplest, most easily
understood language consistent with adequate
expression of his thoughts. And that simple
language is ordinarily adequate to convey the
beauty, strength and emotion of even the most
profound thoughts is shown in such a speech as
Lincoln's "Gettysburg Address." This immortal
utterance so finely illustrates how simplicity of
expression is consistent with impressiveness that
I venture to quote it entire.

"Four score and seven years ago our fathers
brought forth on this continent a new nation, con-
ceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition
that all men are created equal.

"Now we are engaged in a great civil war, test-
ing whether that nation, or any nation so con-
ceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We
are met on a great battle-field of that war. We
have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a
final resting-place for those who here gave their
lives that that nation might live. It is altogether
fitting and proper that we should do this.

"But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate —
we cannot consecrate — ^we cannot hallow — this

112 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

ground. The brave men, living and dead, who
struggled here, have consecrated it far beyond
our poor power to add or to detract. The world
will little note nor long remember what we say
here, but it can never forget what they did here.
It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here
to the unfinished work which they who fought
here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather
for us to be here dedicated to the great task re-
maining before us — that from these honored dead
we take increased devotion to that cause for
which they gave their last full measure of devo-
tion; that we here highly resolve that these dead
shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under
God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that
government of the people, by the people, for the
people, shall not perish from the earth."

II. Directness

Qosely akin to simplicity as an aid to clearness
is directness. This comprises brevity and straight-
forwardness of construction. It means the avoid-
ance of intricate, wordy, clumsy or stilted sen-
tences. Such sentences call to mind the following
specimen from Benjamin Franklin's proposal to
revise the Book of Job. As a sample of improve-
ment, he advocated that the sentence, "Doth
Job fear God for naught?" be changed to, "Does
your majesty imagine that Job's good conduct is

Effective Style in Speech Composition 113

the effect of mere personal attachment and affec-
tion?" With all his proverbial common-sense,
the renowned Franklin erred here. And every
speaker errs who proceeds on the theory that a
statement is impressive in proportion to the
number of words which it contains, or to the
ponderous and involved manner in which it is
made. If an idea can be as fully expressed in five
words as in ten, the extra five are usually a waste,
and frequently a hindrance to clearness. A wordy
speaker might say, for example, ^'A collection of
the most famous and most widely known and
popular essays that have endeared themselves to
iovers of literature for many generations will be
published by Smith and Company for all those
who enjoy reading." With a terse speaker this
would become, ^'A collection of the essays most
popular with many generations of readers will be
published by Smith and Company." The gain
in clearness, and force as well, is obvious.

There are occasions, of course, when long sen-
tences are necessary to express the speaker's
thoughts. In such cases he should preserve clear-
ness by direct, straightforward construction.
For this purpose, the observance of two simple
rules will aid greatly. First, the order of subject-
predicate-object or attribute should generally be
observed. Exceptions may be made occasionally
for the sake of coherence or variety. Secondly,

114 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

all modifying words, phrases, and clauses should
be kept as close as possible to the words modified.
It is remarkable how frequently sentences are
ambiguous, misleading, or unfathomable only be-
cause of injudiciously placed modifiers. Take,
for example, the following typical cases:

I neither am Republican nor Democrat.

Both the platforms of the rival parties are un*
satisfactory.

He was asked to marry the defendant repeat-
edly.

The attorney hurried from the court-house,
where he had been trying a tramp in an auto-
mobile.

The clipping was brought from an address which
had been published the night before by a
messenger boy.

These sentences strike one as absurd, and yet
uncleamess arising from just such errors is by no
means uncommon. The speakers usually know
better, of course, but, owing to carelessness, or to
open disregard of form, they acquire a habit of
obscurity.

D. Force

The fourth requisite for an effective style of
speaking is force. This quality is in no small
part inherent in unity, coherence and clearness^

Effective Style in Speech Composition 115

But additional emphasis may be secured by
special attention to arrangement, diction, illus-
tration and proportion.

I. Arrangement

The essential thing to bear in mind about ar-
rangement is to use the most significant material
where it will do the most good. This principle
applies even to the order within single sentences,
where weight may often be added by placing the
important words at, or near, the opening or clos-
ing; also by arranging series of words, phrases or
clauses in the order of increasing importance.
But a more important consideration is the arrange-
ment of sentences in the development of the
various phases, and of phases in the speech as a
whole. For emphatic effects in the body of the
speech, the best opportunities are in the section
which immediately follows the introduction, and
in that which immediately precedes the con-
clusion. As the speaker finishes his introductory
remarks and launches into the substance of his
topic, the audience is apt to be particularly alert
to size up the strength of his case. Therefore,
whenever the plan of procedure can be so arranged,
it is wise to open with one of the most significant
phases of the discussion. A typical illustration
of such an arrangement was afforded by a political
speech which I recently heard. The opening worda

Ii6 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

were, in effect, "You all want to know the truth
about the eight hour law." The treatment of
this very important factor in the current presi-
dential campaign was followed by less heated
issues, such as the tariff, woman suffrage, appoint-
ments, etc.; but for closing, the speaker had re-
served his most emphatic point, America's foreign
policy, because of the strength inherent in the
final position, as pointed out in a previous chapter.

The outstanding places in the separate sections
are, similarly, at the beginning and the end. As
a rule the greatest advantage may be gained here
by the use of a topic sentence in opening, and
a summary sentence in closing the section. The
topic sentence gives prominence to the idea to be
discussed, and the sununary sentence, expressing
the gist of the thought developed in the section,
presents an emphatic close. A typical illustration
of this is afforded by the following brief excerpt
from a speech by Mr. Charles C. Pearce.

"We are just in the throes of tariff revision.
Early in March was introduced the Payne bill
containing a number of modified duties. At once
a highly significant struggle began in Washington.
The country seems to have settled upon a down-
ward revision of the tariff, yet each group is
jealously guarding its own particular interests.
Steel, for example, rasps: 'Touch not our sacred
schedules!' Lumber and pulp cry: Xut down

EflFective Style in Speech Composition 117

your newspapers, not our profits!' Agriculture
growls: 'Cheap shoes by all means, but abate not
a jot of the duty on hides ! ' Sugar raises the slogan
in the South: * Preference for home products!'
In short, tariff reduction, in theory acceptable to
all, is well-nigh unattainable, simply because every
group insists on retaining all the privileges it
now enjoys."

II. Choice of Words

a. Simplicity

In securing force through choice of words, two
principles are to be observed. The first of these,
simplicity of diction, has already been dealt with
in relation to clearness; but it is of scarcely less
importance as a factor of emphasis. This state*
ment is apt to appear questionable, if not para-
doxical, to an immature speaker since bombastic
diction and long, involved periods are so much
more impressive to the ear. The effective speaker,
however, aim3, not at the ear but at the mind,
which is not to be captured by the explosions of
blank-cartridge diction. It is true that the subject-
matter of some speeches is so thin that the speaker
finds it desirable to attempt to hide his poverty of
material by a covering of words. How often,
indeed, one is tempted to cry out with Hamlet,
"Words, words, words!" But the substantial

Ii8 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

address, which is our concern, gains strength by
simplicity, just as does a statue, a picture, a bridge,
or a piece of machinery.

b. Precision

Precision, the second quality of diction which
makes for force, means the employment of words
which express the speaker's thoughts with exact-
ness. Tins requires more than the mere avoidance
of misusage, such as ^'ingenious" for ^'ingenuous,"
"allusion" for "illusion,'' "infer" for "imply,"
or "arraign" for "indict"; it calls for a choice
between words which mean something similar
but are not synonymous. In other words, the
precise speaker is not satisfied to convey his ideas
approximately. If a circumstance is merely "ap-
parent," he does not term it "evident"; if an
act is only "objected to," he does not refer to it
as "denounced." Nor does he carelessly sprinkle
his addresses with such colorless and inexact
words as "thing," "factor," "and so forth"; nor
habitually begin sentences with meaningless time-
markers like "why," "well," and "now." On
the contrary, he aims to make every word not
only count, but also express the thought so aptly
that any change would weaken the effect. Like
many other qualities discussed heretofore, such
precision in extempore speaking, where revision
is impossible, is an ideal to be sought for rather

Effective Style in Speech Composition 119

than attained absolutely. Furthermore, it is,
frankly, a quality of especial difficulty because it
requires a large working vocabulary. But since,
next to a well-stored mind, words are the speaker's
chief tools, he cannot afford to allow difficulty to
discourage him from persistent cultivation of an
adequate and readily-available vocabulary.

c. Vocabulary Building

In what ways can we work toward this end?
First, it is to be noted that many people do not
take full advantage of the vocabulary which they
already possess. Many bright, expressive words
are allowed to lie like swords in their scabbards
except on rare occasions when unusual stimulus
brings them to light. Again, many words are
constantly employed in hackneyed combinations,
with a lifeless, colorless result. The explanation
is that it takes energy, initiative to speak freshly
and precisely. Much easier is it to talk in a
common-place manner, using over and over the
words which, through repetition, have become
the first, if not the only, line of expression. All too
complacently we say "a long-felt want," "a nota-
ble occasion," "the pages of history," "let us,
therefore," "every walk of life," "an impressive
scene," "last but not least," "then, and then
only." We likewise overwork certain single
words which come easily, and neglect others

I20 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

of equal or greater aptitude which we know,
perhaps, but are too indolent or indifferent to
draft. As a random example take ^^keen" in the
expression "a keen wit," — an excellent word but
often less opposite than "cutting," "trenchant,"
"sharp," "acrid," "caustic," "biting," "incisive,"
'•drastic," "poignant," "vivid," "virulent," or
"corrosive." An examination of such a book as
Roget's "Thesaurus," or Grabbers "Synonyms,"
will awaken a realization of similar varieties of
expression at the speaker's command. And the
student owes it to himself to put into active service
at least those words which already belong to his
vocabulary.

But he should not be satisfied with his present
equipment. Perhaps he can extend his vocabulary
by using various devices which have been helpful
to eminent writers and speakers. Benjamin
Franklin tells us in his "Autobiography" that he
benefited by paraphrasing literary passages which
required the use of terms new to him. Robert
Louis Stevenson carried about with him a note-
book in which he wrote practice sketches, using
the words which arose in connection with the new
activities and scenes encountered in his travels.
Rufus Choate found advantage in translating
foreign languages. Robert Browning and Lord
Chatham studied the dictionary outright. It is
obvious that such exercises take time, and it is.

Effective Style in Speech Composition 121

therefore, fortunate that every person who reads
and converses must necessarily increase his supply
of words by absorption. This unconscious process,
indeed, is largely responsible for such vocabu-
laries as most of us possess. The accumulation is
too slow, however, for the speaker who would
rapidly strengthen his style through precision. It
is highly desirable that he increase his word power
by some form of conscious effort. He may not
be inclined to put into practice any of the exer-
cises recommended above, but certainly when he
reads, converses, or listens to speakers he should
be on the alert to seize upon any words, or felici-
tous phrases with which he is not familiar. These
should be jotted down for dictionary reference
at the earliest opportunity. It is then essential
to make use of these words, soon and frequently,
in order that they may become a part of the
speaker's working vocabulary. This simple and
natural method is within the capability of even
the busiest people. Therefore, while the speaker
is enlarging his knowledge of men and affairs,
there is no excuse for not keeping his vocabulary
abreast.

III. Illustration

A liberal use of illustration is another means of
adding forcefulness to our speaking. The reason
for this is that the concrete is proverbially more

122 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

penetrating than the abstract, whether the appeal
be to the intellect or to the emotions. A definition
which is crystallized in the shape of a specific
example, an exposition of conditions which in-
corporates instances in point, an argument which
is applied to particular cases — all of these embody
greater emphasis than would be possible if only
the abstract matter were used. Note the em-
phatic effect of specific cases in the subjoined
excerpt from one of Henry Van Dyke's speeches.
"Who sneers at commerce? Is it the devotee of
learning? Let him remember that it was the
traders of Phoenicia who gave letters to Greece;
it was the maritime states of Greece who adorned
the world with poetry, and philosophy, and art;
it was the age of England's commercial supremacy
which brought the highest glory to her universi-
ties. It is in great part the liberality of merchants
which has established on our shores those great
institutions of learning — Harvard, Yale, Prince-
ton, Columbia, Cornell. Let him remember the
little commercial city of Leyden, and her im-
perishable example. For when her heroic siege
was ended — ^when she had won her unparalleled
victories against armies, ships, cannon, pestilence,
flood, and famine — ^when the Prince of Orange
in his unbounded gratitude came and asked her
to choose her reward — that little city of Dutch
merchants chose not gold, nor freedom from taxes,

EiFectlve Style in Speech Composition 123

but a university, and the reward of her defense
became the light of Europe."

IV. Proportion

Proportion, as a factor of emphasis, requires
that we elaborate any given phase of a subject
with just consideration for the relative importance
which we attach to it. Generally speaking, the
more time we devote to a section, the more sig-
nificant it appears. The failure to observe this
principle, a very common occurrence, is apt to
ruin the chances for making the best of our oppor-
tunity. The causes of most errors of proportion
are not far to seek.

a. Causes of Bad Proportion

, In the first place, the untried speaker is almost
invariably possessed of the idea that he cannot
"hold the floor" for any appreciable length of
time. This notion results in over-elaboration of
the earlier phases of his address, with hasty treat-
ment, or, if time is strictly limited, even total
omission of parts intended for later development.
Such an outcome is particularly disastrous if the
address has been properly planned to discuss the
most significant aspects near the close. In view
of this common failure it cannot be too strongly
urged that time flies when the speaker really has

124 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

something to say, and that it is essential to beware
of dwelling too long upon the opening phases.

A second cause of bad proportion is the tempta-
tion to dilate upon a phase which affords easy or
pleasant means of elaboration. Of course, if
such a section be vital, the circumstance is a
happy one; if it concerns a subordinate matter,
the misapplied emphasis is unfortunate. Some-
times the unwise elaboration arises from the fact
that the speaker happened to unearth an abun-
dance of material on a relatively insignificant
point. Again, a story or some other form of illus-
tration may lure the unwary speaker on into an
elaboration which eclipses the point under dis-
cussion. Whatever the cause, the person who
aims at effective speaking must exercise sufficient
restraint to keep subordinate features within
proper bounds.

b. Emphasis by Proportion

On the other hand, relatively important aspects
should be given the emphasis which derives from
larger proportions. Beginning with the reading
and note-taking, more pains should be taken to
secure material which bears upon the most salient
points. Next, in planning the development of
such points, the speaker should calculate upon a
more exhaustive elaboration, utilizing more freely
than for the minor phases the various methodsi

Effective Style in Speech Composition .125

8uch as definition, repetition, illustration, and
comparison. Finally, in the address itself, the
speaker should amplify in keeping with the plan,
avoiding the pitfalls of false emphasis, and taking
advantage of the force which inheres in relative
fulness of treatment. Herein he must use judg-
ment for since every topic and phase of a topic
presents its own particular problem, and inas-
much as the attitude of the specific audience ad-
dressed may in great measure determine the
points for emphasis, no inflexible rule of propor-
tion is feasible. In this respect, consider the recent
Presidential campaign. In some parts of the
country the slogan, "He kept us out of war,"
gave the speaker his cue for proportion; in others
industrial and social legislation was the issue of
paramount significance; in still other parts the
tariff question chiefly occupied the people's at-
tention. Clearly, then, regarding proportion, the
speaker who would influence such varied atti-
tudes must be flexible, just as is an advertiser
who emphasizes quality when appealing to the
wealthy, and low prices when offering a cheaper
product to the poorer classes.

E. Attractiveness — A Special Qualffy

And now comes a special quality of style, essen-
tial to the most effective type of speaking — sl
quality which will ordinarily be developed as the

126 The Essential^ of Extempore Speaking

speaker grows in self-confidence and power. It
is, frankly, more elusive than those fundamentals
hitherto presented in that it cannot be wholly
devised out of ordinary speech-matter, but must
in part spring from a sense cultivated in the
speaker himself. Unity, coherence, clearness
and force are characteristics which can be given
to an address by the good artisan of speech; and
if they are observed as set forth in the preceding
sections, they are sufficient to carry the speaker's
message with not only convincing but also per-
suasive effect. The quality, however, toward
which we are directing our attention contributes
a particularly appealing character to style, and
calls into play the workmanship of the artist
rather than that of the mere artisan. Various
names might be applied to this xjuality — grace,
charm, beauty — but these are not sufficiently
comprehensive; a more accurate term is attrac-
tiveness.

Attractiveness essays especially to add imagina-
tive touches to the speaking, to relieve the prosaic
tone, to brighten and decorate the expression —
in short, to please the listener. And though I
have called it elusive, and coupled it with the
artist, it is not altogether vague and beyond the
scope of analysis. Some, at least, of the features
which make for attractiveness of style in speech
composition can be isolated, classified and put to

Effective Style in Speech Composition 127

use by the student. The chief of these are figures
of speech, wit, humor, colorful, suggestive dic-
tion, bits of quotation, and variety in sentence
structure. These we shall consider in some detail.

I. Figures of Speech

The most useful figures of speech are the simile
and the metaphor. While not employed in modem
speech with such frequency or elaboration of
detail as they were in the earlier and more florid
"oratory," an occasional well-chosen figure un-
questionably adds grace, succinctness and vivid-
ness to expression. When Irving suggests that
Ichabod Crane was like "a scarecrow escaped
from a neighboring cornfield," he depicts the
lanky, loose-jointed, shabby pedagogue at full
length and in more striking manner than several
sentences could accomplish. If a speaker refers
to an oflicial as a "rubber-stamp," he epitomizes
a long story in the metaphor. The efiicacy of
such figures depends upon selecting for the simile
or metaphor something which connotes instantly
the essential nature or qualities which we would
emphasize in the matter under discussion. " Scare-
crow," for example, immediately and distinctly
calls up an image which such adjectives as "limp,"
"dangling," "ungainly," and "tattered" charac-
terize only in part. "Rubber-stamp" suggests
at once a lack of independence, of originality, a

128 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

state of servitude, an utter unimportance, and
other things which it would be difficult to state
oiF-hand. The average speaker may occasionally
originate a telling simile or metaphor on the spur
of the moment, but a little premeditation on
three or four apt figures for any given address is
advisable for the inexperienced. It is well to
note, moreover, that some of the most eflFective
figures used in speaking are borrowed, wholly or
in part, from literature. The new relationship
supplied by the speaker affords a positive touch
of originality, as in the figure, "The promises of
the honorable member are like the chaff which the
wind driveth away." The student will do well
to note for future use any especially happy figures
which he meets in his reading, always avoiding
those which are hackneyed, over-elaborate, or
far-fetched.

II. Wit and Humor

Wit and humor is a more difficult subject to
deal with, and in the present limited scope it is
possible to attempt only the most general discus-
sion. This may, nevertheless, be suggestive in
helping the student to apply his own sense of
wit and humor to speaking. In the first place —
and this is often not realized — there is rarely a
speech of such grave import that it does not gain
by a touch of humor here and there. Even the

Effective Style in Speech Composition 129

so-called "highbrow" audience relishes it, and no
matter how serious the speaker's mission may be,
he is wise if he serves his heavy courses with a lit-
tle sauce. This may consist of a humorous anec-
dote or incident, a passage of clever dialogue, or a
witty turn of expression. Such means of enlivenr
ing a speech afford what the writers of drama
call "relief" or "comic relief"; and the average
speech needs it quite as much as "Macbeth"
needs the tipsy porter. "Relief" should never
be long sustained for brevity is truly the soul of it.
Furthermore, it might better be omitted altogether
than to seem forced or dragged in for the mere
sake of a laugh. This means that the humorous
bit should always arise, or seem to arise, naturally
in the course of the discussion. This does not
mean that it must necessarily have a pertinent
bearing on the topic. Notice, for example, how
easily a touch of irrelevant humor is injected into
the following passage from one of President
Wilson's speeches.

"I have sometimes reflected on the lack of a
body of public opinion in our cities, and once I
contrasted the habits of the city man with those
of the countryman in a way which got me into
trouble. I described what a man in a city gener-
ally did when he got into a public vehicle or sat
in a public place. He doesn't talk to anybody,
but he plunges his head into a newspaper and

I30 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

presently experiences a reaction which he calls
his opinion, but which is not an opinion at all,
being merely the impression that a piece of news
or an editorial has made upon him. He cannot
be said to be participating in public opinion at all
until he has laid his mind alongside die minds of
his neighbors and discussed with them the inci-
dents of the day and the tendencies of the time.

"Where I got into trouble was, that I ventured
on a comparison. I said that public opinion was
not typified on the streets of a busy city, but was
typified around the stove in a country store where
men sat and probably chewed tobacco and spat
into a sawdust box, and made up, before they
got through, what was the neighborhood opinion
both about persons and events; and then, inad-
vertently, I added this philosophical reflection,
that, whatever might be said against the chewing
of tobacco, this at least could be said for it: that
it gave a man time to think between sentences.
Ever since then I have been represented, par-
ticularly in the advertisements of tobacco firms, as
in favor of the use of chewing tobacco!"

In the above passage, the foundation for the
humorous sally is laid with the sentence, "Where
I got into trouble was that I ventured on a com-
parispn." After that, it is smooth going. From
this suggestion the student of speaking may note
that even purely humorous anecdotes or inddents

Effective Style in Speech Composition 131

can usually be brought in gracefully by a little
care in phrasing a transitional sentence which
leads from the serious matter into the subject of
the pleasantry.

A clever presentation of an idea, or a witty
phrase or epithet serves much the same purpose
as the touch of humor. For example, a recent
speaker said, "Many nice things have been re-
marked of Christian Science, and I must confess
that I have but two objections to it: first, that it
is not Christian; and, second, that it is not science."
Without venturing an opinion on the soundness
of the objections, I can affirm that the audience
was pleased by the neatness of the expression.
In another recent address, condemning corporate
wealth, the speaker referred to a board of directors
as "an opulent and corpulent body of gentlemen."
These two random illustrations serve merely to
indicate the kind of expression which may be
used occasionally, in addition to the humorous
anecdote or incident, to brighten the speaker's
style. Without some such piquancy, a substan-
tial speech is apt to fall flat — indeed, oftentimes
the more substantial it is, the greater is the fall
thereof. The average audience can stand a con-
siderable amount of fact, of logic, of the solid
material which, as I have previously emphasized,
must constitute the body of a speech with serious
purpose. But it is human after all, and prone to

132 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

become weary, bored, inattentive — or absent
If the great Burke had only injected some bits of
pleasantry into that monumental '^ Conciliation
Speech" perhaps history might have taken a
different course.

III. Variety of Sentence Structure

A somewhat less striking, but highly desirable,
means of attractiveness is variety of sentence
structure. The student will recall numerous
ways of variation, but I shall suggest some of the
most serviceable. First as to the order of parts;
the usual sequence is subject-predicate-object or
attribute, for the sake of clearness. But an ad-
dress which proceeds thus from beginning to end
becomes monotonous, just as if one were to speak
without vocal inflections. Fortunately an occa-
sional change of order does not confuse the lis-
tener; and it assuredly contributes, along with
other variations, to his pleasure in hearing a speech.
It is well, then, to begin sometimes with a phrase,
sometimes with an adverb and again, with an
adjective, object, attribute, or dependent clause.
Furthermore, it is desirable to vary the declarative
form now and then by an interrogation or ex-
clamation. A third possibility of change is in
the length of the sentences. The very long sen-
tence will be generally avoided by the speaker.

EflFective Style in Speech Composition 133

but an irregular mixture of moderate and short
sentences will avoid choppiness of effect on the
one hand, and on the other, unnecessary strain
upon the attention of the audience. Ordinarily,
sentences are what are known as loose, i. e., pos-
sible of logical termination at one or more points
before the close. But these may be occasionally
varied to advantage by a periodic sentence, which
suspends the sense until the end. For example,
"The work of the committee has stopped on ac-
count of lack of funds" (loose); and "On account
of lack of funds, the work of the committee has
stopped" (periodic). Another means of variation
is the balanced structure such as, "Money has
been called the root of all evil; but most people
seek it as if it were the bulb of all happiness. The
possessors of great wealth are said to be weighed
down with responsibility; and yet there are few
of us who wouldn't gladly assume such a burden."
This kind of structure becomes artificial in effect
if frequently used, but as an occasional device
it is notably emphatic. A final suggestion for
securing attractiveness through variety of struc-
ture is to use now and then a sentence charac-
terized by words, phrases or clauses in a series of
parallel construction. The greatest advantage
is usually gained by arranging the members of
the series with a view to increasing significance.
The following passage from one of John M. Thurs-

/^"

134 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

ton's speeches gives a very striking example of
the cumulative force of a series.

*^ Force compelled the signature of unwilling
royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life
into the Declaration of Independence, and made
effective the Emancipation Proclamation; force
beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway
of the Bastille and made reprisal in one awful
hour for centuries of kingly crime; force waved
the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill, and marked
the snows of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet;
force held the broken line at Shiloh, climbed the
flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stoiined
the clouds on Lookout Heights; force marched
with Sherman to the sea, rode with Sheridan in
the valley of the Shenandoah, and gave Grant
victory at Appomattox; force saved the Union,
kept the stars in the flag, made 'niggers' men."

F. Summary

Style and diction, though primarily concerned
with form rather than substance, are, neverthe-
less, significant with respect to both conviction
and persuasion. In order to appeal to the minds
and interests of an audience, a speech should be
characterized by the fundamentals of a good
style, unity, coherence, clearness, force, and by a
fifth quality, attractiveness, which adds greatly
' to the effectiveness of address. Unity requires

Effective Style In Speech Composition 135

that the development of a speech shall bear con-
stantly upon the subject under consideration,
and that the discussion of each component phase
shall pertain exclusively to that phase. Coher-
ence is the flowing, progressive quality which is
secured by a logical sequence of thoughts, ex-
pressed with proper links making sentence and
topical relationships explicit. Clearness, likewise,
pertains to both thought and expression. It
requires a sure grasp of the subject-matter, sim-
plicity of diction, and conciseness and directness
of construction. Force in a measure inheres in
the qualities already mentioned, but it can be
greatly increased in the following ways: (i) by
placing in the opening and closing positions of
sentences, sections, and the whole development,
the most important words, sentences, and phases,
respectively; (2) by using words which are simple,
but at the same time adequate and precise: (3) by
freely using illustrations and concrete cases in
point; (4) by avoiding temptations to over-
elaborate minor factors, and by giving due pro-
portion to important aspects. For acquiring
attractiveness of style the following suggestions
were offered: (i) the use of figures of speech, par-
ticularly the simile and metaphor; (2) wit and
humor, including the humorous incident or anec-
dote, a bit of witty dialogue, a clever turn of
phrase; (3) variety of sentence structure, secured

136 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

by changing the regular order of parts, and using
such variations from the normal as interroga-
tions, exclamations, short, periodic, balanced,
and ^^ series'' sentences.

A knowledge of the factors which make for an
eflFective style of speech composition constitutes
an advantageous point of departure. If, however,
the student is careless in his preparation and fails
to speak deliberately, with the idea of cultivating
a habitual and spontaneous observance of the
principles advocated, his knowledge is of little
practical value. Finally, it is to be noted that
the principles must be joined into a composite
whole, and fused by the personality and attitude
of the individual speaker. These matters of
personality and attitude are of such importance
in relation to style as to call for detailed con-
sideratbn in the following chapters.

CHAPTER IX

THE PERSONALITY OF THE SPEAKER

In "Virginibus Puerisque" Robert Louis Ste-
venson wrote: "An orator makes a false step; he
employs some trivial, some absurd, some vulgar
phrase; in a turn of a sentence he insults, by a
side wind, those whom he is laboring to charm;
in speaking to one sentiment he unconsciously
ruffles another in parenthesis; and you are not
surprised, for you know his task to be delicate
and filled with perils." The last clause conveys
a rather extreme impression, but it will be readily
admitted that to satisfy and please an audience
requires the best there is in a man. And since
the things he will say and the way in which he
will say them are greatly influenced by his per-
sonality, his attitude toward his subject, and his
attitude toward his audience, we may profitably
examine these aspects with care. In this chapter
we shall take up the personal qualities most es-
sential to the success of a speaker. These may
be classified under three heads: self-confidence,
sincerity, and what is variously known as charm,
graciousness, or magnetism.

137

238 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

A. Self-confidence

With respect to self-confidence, the speaker is,
for the time being, a leader; he assumes to direct
the thoughts, or, it may be, the actions of his
listeners. In this position, timidity is almost as
much out of place as it would be in an officer at the
head of a body of troops. A lack of self-confidence
results in a nervous, halting, unconvincing pres-
entation. Furthermore, it frequently causes the
speaker to express himself in a sketchy, incomplete
fashion, even when he has a real message and is
adequately prepared to deliver it. He takes the
floor in a convention, let us say, because he
thinks he has a contribution to make to the dis-
cussion. Upon facing the audience, he becomes
self-conscious, panicky. In some instances a
vague, and often mistaken, sense of inability to
express his thoughts overwhelms him, and he
gives up after a few detached sentences. An-
other cause of such a failure is that as the timid
speaker begins to talk he gets the notion that his
ideas are too well known, too common-place to
warrant their development. Consequently he
aims to sit down as soon as possible. The chances
are that a following speaker with more assurance
can take the same ideas and elaborate them with
credit to himself and profit to his audience. Many
of us, especially when before an audience, are all

The Personality of the Speaker 139

too ready to retreat upon the auto-suggestion
that our thoughts are not new and striking. Even
if they are not, a fresh expression, a recombination
of them may be worth while. Indeed, if only
new and original thoughts were fit for public utter-
ance, public speaking and several allied arts
would have died a natural death long ago. Of
course, if a man has nothing worth while to say,
the time to reach that decision is before he leaves
his seat; the poorest place to say nothing is in
front of an audience.

I. The Basis for Self-confidence

How can assurance, self-confidence be gained?
Broad reading, thoughtful reading, which gives a
person some degree of familiarity with the best
that is thought and known in various selected
fields is one preliminary step. Careful observa-
tion of the people and things which surround him
day by day is another step. A man who reads
thoughtfully and sees things with real discern-
ment, whether they be children's games, factories,
sunsets, crowds before shop windows, or forests
in winter is laying a foundation for self-confidence
in speaking, because he is acquiring a store of
thoughts and experiences upon which such con-
fidence is most securely built.

140 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

II. Means of Development

Now let us consider some more direct methods
of securing self-confidence. Much that has been
said in earlier chapters about thorough prepara-
tion for an address has an emphatic bearing upon
this matter. Again, we gain confidence by be-
coming accustomed to expressing our thoughts
in words. This can be done by frequent practice
in writing, and especially in thoughtful conversa-
tion. Instead of being satisfied with laconic ex-
changes, we should cultivate the habit of de-
veloping ideas in our more leisurely talks with
companions. We can gain confidence in express-
ing our thoughts also by thinking aloud in the
privacy of our homes. It would probably be sur-
prising to hear how many excellent sermons and
speeches have been worked out with chairs and
tables as uncomplaining practice audiences.
Finally, the training par excellence for self-
confidence is actual appearance before audiences.
Every chance to speak, whether in class-room,
social gathering, club-room, or on formal occasion
should be seized as an opportunity to develop
that factor of power which confidence alone can
give.

B. SiNCERmr

The second personal quality requisite for eflFect-
ive speaking is sincerity. There are, to be sure.

The Personality of the Speaker 141

certain subjects and occasions which permit levity
of treatment. But in dealing with serious matters
the speaker, as a rule, reaches the hearts and
minds of his listeners only when he expresses his
real thoughts and feelings. Insincerity, whether
open, or hidden under an assumed earnestness, is
ill-calculated to win for a speaker the esteem
which counts so much to his advantage. We all
despise anything which savors of hypocrisy, and
we all like a straightforward man even if his
views are opposed to our own. Often a speaker^s
very earnestness is in no small part responsible
for an actual change of heart, to say nothing of a
favorable hearing, on the part of antagonistic
auditors. It is safe to say that under the influence
of such earnestness as is displayed by men like
Mr. Roosevelt many who come to scoff remain to

pray.

This sincerity of which I am speaking is not a
quality which can be put on like a surplice and
removed at convenience. If it exists in a person,
it exists as a part of the warp and woof of that
person's character. Therefore, it must be culti-
vated in one's daily life. A man who habitually
thinks of life as more or less of a joke, or who or-
dinarily talks as if nothing counted much is apt
to give an impression of insincerity when he
speaks in public. Another type of insincerity is
represented by the person who gets, and deserves,

142 The Essentials of Ejctempore Speaking

the comment, ^'Oh, he loves to hear himself talk."
That will not be said of the speaker who strives
to understand and to sympathize broadly with
the lives and activities of his fellowmen, and who
appears before an audience with the same true
sincerity which characterizes his habitual attitude.

C. Charm

The third quality which should be cultivated
by the speaker is charm, or magnetism. This,
as was said of humor in the discussion of style, is
an elusive quality to analyze, partly because with
diflPerent individuals it manifests itself in such
various kinds and degrees. Unquestionably a
speaker is fortunate if he is just naturally gifted
with an attractive personality. But certain at-
tributes can be cultivated which will lend no small
degree of charm to the speaker.

I. Modesty

First, among these attributes, may be men-
tioned modesty or, if one pleases, the absence of
anything suggestive of bluster, of self-assertive-
ness. Not infrequently a speaker by adopting an
attitude of superiority or of domineering ruins his
chances of winning an audience, irrespective of
what he has to say. People are not well-disposed

The Personality of the Speaker 143

toward the views of a man, however much he
may know, who presumes to say, in effect, "You
ignorant ones, listen to me who know it all." The
attitude of the audience is not improved even if
this sentiment is put in the more bland language
of a Brutus: "Hear me for my cause, and be silent
that you may hear; believe me for mine honor,
and have respect to mine honor that you may
believe; censure me in your wisdom, and awake
your senses that you may the better judge." No,
the audience respects self-confidence, as stated
before, but it likes a self-confidence that has no
dealings with self-assertiveness. Nor is the lis-
tener drawn to a speaker whose modesty savors
of self-depreciation of the Uriah Heep type. In
a word, the quality under consideration is best
exemplified in the man whose words and manner
bespeak a personality which neither offends by a
display of superiority, nor disgusts by condescen-
sion.

II. Geniality

Quite as important as modesty is geniality.
This quality radiates from the speaker and warms
the audience into a feeling of accord with him.
One occasionally hears a man who "captivates
his listeners" even before he begins to speak. An
expression of sympathetic and infectious good-
humor does the work. Admittedly this radiant

144 T^^ Essentials of Extempore Speaking

quality is difficult in the case of an immature
speaker under the handicap of timidity, nervous-
ness — or poor preparation. But such a person
can avoid the last-mentioned obstacle, and he will
be helped by not taking himself too seriously, and
by remembering what was said in the early pages
about the good wishes and sympathy of the aver-
age audience for the speaker. At all events every
speaker should cultivate geniality as a habit.
The old saw, ^' Laugh and the World laughs with
you," has been most profitably drafted into ser-
vice by a great modem business corporation in
the form, "The voice with the smile wins." This
idea may well be taken to heart by the speaker.
Severity has its place in speaking; anger has its
place; so does sarcasm; but under ordinary cir-
cumstances cheerfulness, optimism, wholehearted*
ness are what make for charm.

It is difficult to convey the impression of a
speaker's charm in mere type; the warmth with
which the individual invests the words is lost.
But as we read the works of a man like Washing-
ton Irving, let us say, we feel that he must have
had a sunny, optimistic attitude toward life.
Similarly, the reader will note in the following
extract from a speech of Dr. John H. Finley to a
class of college students graduating in February
something of the brightness and warmth which
makes for a charming personality.

The Personality of the Speaker 145

" To the men of February j 1910:

" You must be missing this week the traditional
and delightful accompaniments of the baccalau-
reate ceremonies which jrour June brothers know.
The laurel is not in berry. The oratorical adage
and the rhetorical words of advice are not in
season. The city about is not thinking of vaca-
tion and rest, of mountains and seashore. It is
at work, busy even in its play, and it will hardly
look up to make place for you, much less to cele-
brate your entrance. Your laureation must,
therefore, be made with leaves alone.

" But I want to help you to feel the joy of the
commencement none the less, though you gradu-
ate near the winter solstice and under a new star
and a new sign of the zodiac (or, as Dante put it,
when the * fishes are quivering on your horizon,*'
when ^the sun is tempering his locks beneath
Aquarius and the nights are passing to the south')*
You will be pioneers of the new traditions in the
American college calendar, and I wish that you
may make them happy traditions. The ancients
had their hiemal garlands as well as aestival and
why shall we not make our winter summer, in
the celebration of our hopes — ^which have no
season — for you who have endured our disciplines
and are, in and out of season, to represent our
faith in better things ?

^' I have wished many times during the last three

146 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

or four years that I could find some distinguishing
name for you who go out in winter, when one has
to shake the snow from the laurel in gathering
even the leaves for your graduation. But I have
thought of none that will be permanently distinc-
tive. In the precession of the equinoxes your
February successors will some day (if we assume
the continuance of the College and the custom
through enough centuries) be graduated under
the star and zodiacal sign of your June brothers
and you under theirs. And the precession of our
thoughts traveling more quickly over this cycle
of ten thousand years sees you all of one company
and under one star and sign."

III. Tact

Finally, one of the most potent factors of charm
is tact. This quality may be defined as the
ability to say the right thing at the right time,
and, what is even more important, to leave unsaid
that which would be unfortunate under given
circumstances. Like most of the qualities pre-
viously noted in this chapter, tact is likely to be
observed by the speaker only if it is habitual in
his relations with those about him. A person
who regularly accepts kindnesses without any
sign of appreciation, and who never thinks to
express pleasure at the good-fortune, or solicitude
concerning the ill-fortune of friends and acquaint*

The Personality of the Speaker 147

ances — such a person lacks tact. It is likewise
lacking in those who do not hesitate to ridicule
the defects, shortcomings or misfortunes of their
fellowmen. These tactless people are likely in
public address to omit the little touches which
please, and, especially, are liable to blurt out
things that offend. A man who in a social gather-
ing will refer heartlessly to a distorted feature or
a crippled limb is in danger in public address of
speaking with purposeless contempt of a man
who has friends in the audience, or of an institu-
tion which numbers staunch supporters among
his listeners. The tactful speaker will not do
such a thing, and as the once common sign put
it, "others must not."

The tactful speaker's characteristic attitude
will be one which interprets acts and motives in
the best light, consistent with the facts; he will
show a readiness to give the other fellow the pro-
verbial benefit of the doubt. He will avoid the
vulgar phrase, the cynical turn, the tone of ir-
reverence in speaking of things which some, at
least, of his auditors hold in esteem. On the
positive side, whenever he can do so without
flattery, he will indirectly compliment the judg-
ment, taste, knowledge, or ability of his listeners,
or in some other unobtrusive way make them
feel that he has a good opinion of them. Unob-
trusiveness, it is to be noted, is the key-note of

148 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

tact; anything which might appear glaring,
forced, or awkward, by its very absence shows
tact.

D. Summary

In the present chapter, self-confidence, sin-
cerity, and charm have been presented as the
personal qualities most desirable in the speaker*
In the discussion of the first quality, it was pointed
out that an attack of timidity is often due merely
to a fancied inability to express one's thoughts, or
to a sudden notion that one's thoughts are com-
mon-place. Such causes of timidity are trivial
weaknesses, which should be opposed by a little
show of determination. To provide for self-
confidence in the larger sense, broad and thought-
ful reading, and careful, appreciative observation
were advocated. Furthermore, it was urged that
speakers accustom themselves to expressing their
thoughts by writing, by more fully developed
conversations, and by "thinking aloud" in pri-
vate. The second personal quality, sincerity,
was discussed as a strong convincing and per-
suasive factor. A man who shows by his words
and manner that he believes earnestly what he
says is capable of securing results which a mere
talker or poser cannot accomplish. It was es-
pecially emphasized that sincerity in speaking
springs from sincerity as a habitual attitude in

The Personality of the Speaker 149

eveiyday life. The third desirable characteristic
of the speaker is charm. This quality was analyzed
as consisting chiefly of : (i) modesty, an avoidance
of any tinge of bluster or self-sufficiency; (2)
geniality, which connotes openness, cheerfulness,
good-humor, and optimism; and (3) tact, which
is based upon a habitually sympathetic attitude
toward one's fellowmen, and an ability to say
the right thing at the right time, and to avoid
saying anything that will wound or offend.

CHAPTER X

THE SPEAKER'S ATTITUDE TOWARD fflS

SUBJECT

From the essential personal qualities, we turn
to the proper attitude of the speaker toward his
subject. This attitude should be characterized
by familiarity with the subject-matter, a spirit
of fairness, and a marked degree of interest.

A. FAMiLiARmr with the Subject

In order to secure the confidence of his listeners,
the speaker should be able to impress them that
he is adequately informed about the topic under
consideration. This impression must not be con-
veyed in such a way as to violate the principle of
modesty. Of course, if a man's travels or ex-
periences have fitted him particularly to present
a certain subject, it is entirely within the bounds
of propriety to state, in opening, the opportuni-
ties which he has had. Usually, however, the
impression of mastery should come as an inference
on the part of the audience. This will be the case
when the speaker is ^^fuU of his subject." In

ISO

The Speaker and his Subject 151

that event, instead of giving evidence of meager
or last-minute preparation, he will suggest by
his sureness of procedure and his amplitude of
material that he knows more about the topic than
he can compass into the limited space of a single
address.

Such an indication of mastery depends some-
what upon organization of the general plan, the
skillful use of details, examples, illustrations; in
part upon the self-confidence of the speaker; but
it depends most of all upon the thoroughness
with which the material is gathered and digested.
It is for this reason that, other things being equal,
the speakers who most clearly evince mastery of
their subjects are those who speak from personal
experience. Admiral Peary on "Polar Explora-
tion," or Miss Jane Addams on "Social Service"
immediately gain the full confidence of their
hearers. But only a few speeches, relatively, can
be made from personal experience; and the dis-
advantage must be minimized as much as possible
by thoroughness of research. The more exhaust-
ively one covers the best that has been written
on a given topic, the greater is one's chance of
creating the impression of mastery in speaking.
This somewhat obvious statement is intended as
a warning to those who would attempt to make a
speech by paraphrasing one or two magazine
articles. While such a thing might be excusable

152 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

if occasion called for an impromptu effort, it must
ordinarily be evident that the speaker is treating
the subject superficially. An eclectic collection
of material is essential for acquiring that mastery
which inspires complete confidence on the part
of the audience. For example, if a person is
speaking on ^^ Labor Conditions in the United
States," it is desirable for him to know not only
what the Commissioner of Labor and the Inmiigra*
tion Officials report, but also what such men as
Mr. Gompers, Mr. Mitchell, and the President
of the Employers' Association have to say on
the subject. The gpod speaker rarely exhausts
all the details at his command, but it is far better
to be able to select the most desirable from an
excess of material than to be under the necessity
of stretching to the required proportions a very
limited amount.

B. A Spirtt of Fairness

Further, with regard to the speaker's attitude
toward his subject, he should be impelled by a
spirit of fairness, a desire to arrive at the truth of
the matter. This is another reason for making
an unbiased examination of sources: neutral, pro
and anti when the topic is of an argumentative
nature; or emanating from different attitudes of
mind or varying points of view when the subject

The Speaker and his Subject 153

is of a descriptive, narrative or expository char-
acter. Rarely is there a subject of any great im-
portance concerning which the facts all support
one view; usually a conflict is involved, although
the preponderance of evidence may lead to a
more or less decided conclusion in favor of a given
view. The intelligent audience is aware of this
existence of conflicting factors; therefore, not
only the fair speaker, but even the merely skillful
one, does not attempt to hide or distort those
matters which seem to favor a conclusion opposed
to his own. He refutes such points if he can; and
naturally lays particular emphasis upon what he
considers the right side of the case. But, above
all things, he avoids following the paths of preju-
dice, trickery, deception, those tortuous byways
which lead sooner or later to a speaker's undoing.
There has been of late in the business world a
revival of interest in the old copy-book maxim,
"honesty is the best policy." In keeping with
the materialistic trend, the old saying now ap-
pears without any ambiguity as, "Honesty pays."
The grocer less frequently sells storage eggs for
fresh; the merchant less frequently offers to the
public "twenty-five dollar suits marked down to
twelve-forty-nine." Why? Principally, I be-
lieve, because a more enlightened and self-assertive
public these days comes back once and for all
with the stale eggs and the supposedly twenty-five

154 '^^ Essentials of Extempore Speaking

dollar suits. It is this same enlightened public
that listens to speakers, whether in convention
halls or on street corners. And if you or I, stand-
ing in a pulpit or on an up-turned barrel, attempt
to secrete or distort essential matters, we do it
in the face of intelligent persons who are con-
stantly checking up, either silently or with loud
and very disconcerting voices, the exaggerations,
the vital omissions, the misrepresentations, and
other "cold-storage" features of our speeches.
Any student who doubts the soundness of this
statement has but to listen to a few political cam-
paigners, or attend a so-called forum, after which
he will agree that fair dealing pays in speaking as
well as in business. The following extract from
a speech of Ex-Governor Hughes is such an ad-
mirable and suggestive illustration of fairness and
open-mindedness that I venture to quote at some
length.

"The t3rpical American does not seek idleness
but work. He wants to justify himself by proved
capacity in useful effort. Under different condi-
tions he still has the spirit of those who faced the
wilderness, advanced the outposts of civilization,
and settled a continent of matchless resources,
where has been laid the basis for a wider diffusion
of prosperity among a greater population than
the world has ever known.

"To whatever department of activity we may

The Speaker and his Subject 155

turn, after making all necessary allowances for
ignorance, shiftlessness and vice, we still find
throughout the country, dominant and persuasive,
the note of energy and resistless ambition. The
vitality of the people has not been sapped by pros-
perity. The increase of comfort has not impaired
their virility. We are still a hardy people, equal
to our task, and pressing forward vigorous and
determined in every direction to enlarge the record
of achievement.

^^ It is easy, looking at phases of our life in an
absolute way, for one who is pessimistically in-
clined to gather statistics which superficially con-
sidered are discouraging. Congestion in our great
cities, the widened opportunity for the play of
selfishness, and the increase of temptations fol-
lowing in the wake of prosperity, give rise to an
appalling number and variety of private and public
wrongs whose thousands of victims voice an un-
dying appeal to humanity and patriotism.

" But one would form a very inaccurate judg-
ment of our moral condition by considering these
wrongs alone. They must be considered in their
relation to other phases of our life. We must not
fail to take note of the increasing intensity of the
desire to find remedies and the earnestness with
which all forms of evil and oppression are at-
tacked.

Considering the tremendous increase in the

156 The E88ential8 of Extempore Speaking

opportunities for wrongdoing, the seductive and
refined temptations, and the materialistic appeals
that are incident to our present mode of life, and
the material comforts which invention and com-
merce have made possible, I believe that the man-
ner in which the ethical development of the people
has kept pace with their progress in other direc-
tions may fairly be called extraordinary.

^^ In saying this, I am not at all unmindful of
how far short we come of an ideal state of society.
On the contrary, existing evils are the more no-
ticeable, because they stand out in strong con-
trast to the desires and aspirations of the people.
We have had disclosures of shocking infidelity to
trust and to public obligation, but more important
than the evil disclosed was the attitude of the
people toward it. Individual shortcomings are
many, but the moral judgment of the community
is keen and severe.

" To-day the American people are more alive to
the importance of impartial and honorable ad-
ministration than ever before. They do not sim-
ply discuss it; they demand it. While in many
communities administration is controlled in the
selfish interest of a few to the detriment of the
people, that which is more characteristic of our
present political life is the determination that
selfish abuse of governmental machinery shall
stop.

The Speaker and his Subject 157

^' Let there be no vague fears about the outcome.
I place full confidence in the sobriety and in«
tegrity of motive of the American people. I have
profound belief in their ability to cure existing
evils without disturbing their prosperity. I am
convinced that we shall have more and more
intelligent and unselfish representation of the
people's interests: that political leadership will
be tested more and more by the soundness of its
counsel and the disinterestedness of its ambition.

" I believe that with an increasing proportion of
true representation, with increasing discriminating
public discussion, with the patient application
of sound judgment to the consideration of public
measures, and with the inflexible determination
to end abuses and to purify the administration
of government of self-interest, we shall realize a
greater prosperity and a wider diffusion of the
blessing of free government than we have hitherto
been able to enjoy."

C. A Marked Degree of Interest

Finally, the attitude of the speaker toward his
subject should be characterized by a marked
degree of interest. I would say enthusiasm were
I not aware that such a requirement is rather
more than can be reasonably expected for all sub-
jects and occasions. A given speaker may be
enthusiastic in urging independence for the Phil*

158 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

ippinesy but very rightly feel much less intense
when explaining the topography of the State of
South Dakota — or even vice versa. Whatever
the subject, however, and whatever the occasion,
interest at least must be shown. The degree will
naturally vary with the conditions and the speak-
er's inclinations, but it is impossible for an unin-
terested speaker to keep an audience attentive in
the real sense.

From what has just been said it might appear
that most men can speak effectively on only a
very restricted number of topics. This is not the
case. Our limited interests are in great part due
to our limited knowledge. If Messrs. A, B and C
are interested in astronomy, let us say, and Mr. D
is not at all concerned about the subject, it is
very probably because he knows nothing about
it. To be sure, the person is rare who can experi-
ence a real hearty interest in everything he in-
vestigates. We are not all Lord Bacons, who,
unless I am mistaken, took the whole of human
knowledge as his province. But our capacity for
interest in many things is greater than we com-
monly suppose. The fact is that most people
have certain material interests centering about
food, raiment, shelter and health; and other more
or less circumscribed interests of the spirit asso-
ciated with entertainment, social intercourse and
home. Owing to obsession by these, or to sheer

The Speaker and his Subject 159

inertia, a great many people do not broaden their
horizon. It is not diat they are incapable of
interest in the fields of art, literature, music,
science, history, etc., but that they make no
attempt to arouse it. Occasionally a student
comes to me with the plaint that he cannot speak
on any topic in an assigned list because he does
not happen to be interested in any of them. He
is partly right; he should not speak upon a topic
in which he has no interest. But this student is
often led to see that it might be well to acquire
a new interest, and this alternative solution to
his problem not infrequently produces a good
speech.

If, therefore, occasion calls upon a person for
an address on an unfamiliar topic which has not
hitherto attracted his interest, he should not dis-
miss the opportunity before carefully examining
the subject. It may open an alluring vista. He
must be satisfied about that before speaking,
however, for he is under the necessity of interest-
ing his hearers, and he cannot hope to do that
unless he is himself concerned. The greater the
intensity of interest felt, whether due to personal
associations in the field, to former research, or to
new investigations, the more spirited will be the
organization, the composition and the delivery.
And this vitality, inspired by interest, goes far
toward making a speech effective in its appeal.

i6o The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

D. Summary

With reference to the speaker's attitude toward
his subject, this chapter has pointed out three
things. First, he should show thorough familiarity
with the material which he assumes to discuss.
This familiarity is best acquired by personal ex-
perience in the field under consideration, but
since that is usually impossible, the speaker
should cover secondary sources of information in
as exhaustive a manner as circumstances permit.
By consulting a representative array of sources,
he is able to select the best, most trustworthy
material for his address. Secondly, it was urged
that the speaker approach his subject in a spirit
of fairness, which takes due note of the existence
of conflicting views. He will thus be in a position
to refute, to disarm criticism; and though he will,
naturally, emphasize the position which he up-
holds, he should under no circumstances resort
to deception, misrepresentation or any kind of
trickery. It was further shown that the com-
mercial slogan, ^^ Honesty pays,'' applies to speak-
ing as well as to business. Lastly, the speaker
was advised of the necessity of showing a marked
degree of interest in the subject he is presenting.
The amount of interest will vary with subjects
and conditions, but the nearer it approaches to
enthusiasm in any given instance the more in-

The Speaker and his Subject i6i

fluence, ordinarily, will be exerted upon an au^
dience. In this connection it was pointed out
that our interests can be materially broadened by
investigation, and that public speaking affords
a stimulating incentive to that end.

CHAPTER XI

THE SPEAKER'S ATTITUDE TOWARD mS

AUDIENCE

A. Alertness

The first point to be noted with reference to
the speaker's attitude toward his audience is
alertness, constant watchfulness to detect the
effect of his words, and as far as possible to antici-
pate the probable reactions to what he has planned
to say, in order that modifications may be made
if necessary. This ability to profit by the varying
responses of an audience is one of the distinguish-
ing differences between a good speaker and a
mediocre or poor one. The mediocre speaker
plans exactly what he intends to say and goes
through it whether his listeners understand or
not, whether they approve or disapprove. The
good speaker, on the contrary, seeing a puzzled
look here and there, proceeds to elaborate, or to
express the unclear idea in a more simple manner,
or to furnish an illuminating example. He catches
a glimpse of frowning faces, and he endeavors to
strengthen his position, or justly to qualify an

162

The Speaker and his Audience 163

assertion until the frowns have disappeared. If
he sees indications of listlessness, he freshens
his discourse with a bit of humor, a narrative, a
striking concrete example, or a marked change in
his voice modulations. Noticing pleased faces
and nods of approval, he follows up his advantage
by driving home with extra force a point that
especially enlists the support of his audience.

If ever there was a time when speakers could
afford to take into consideration only the subject-
matter and their own views in interpreting it to
others, that time is past. To-day, the attitude
of the audience is a factor to be reckoned with.
It is not alone what the man on the platform
thinks and feels that counts, but also the inter-
play between that and the thoughts and feelings
of the auditors. For this reason, the practical
speaker in action needs, in addition to all that he
can learn beforehand about an audience, a seeing
eye and flexibility in handling his subject-matter.

B. Friendliness

We may next consider friendliness as a de-
sirable characteristic of the speaker's attitude
toward his audience. Some men appear to con-
sider their listeners in the light of tacit opponents
or, what is quite as inapt, school-children. The
chief errors underlying these attitudes may be

164 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

pointed out in order to help the student avoid
them. The first, and most difficult to overcome,
is a habitually disputatious nature; the second is
a mistaken idea that an audience can be driven
or coerced into an acceptance of the speaker's
views; the third is an unfortunate delusion that
timidity can be concealed by a great display of
aggressiveness. The speaker should earnestly
combat these errors if he is guilty of any of them,
for their resultant attitudes, as noted above, are
very undesirable. Occasionally a person knows
that he is to address those who are hostile. In
such an event, instead of avoiding the friendly
attitude, especial pains should ordinarily be taken
to observe it. An angry audience, like an angry
man, is not appeased or mollified by a show of
fists, literal or figurative. However, most au-
diences are inclined to be well-disposed toward a
speaker unless he, himself, arouses a spirit of
opposition.

To make the most of this favorable disposition,
how ought the speaker to act? Nothing could be
more simple. He should speak in the quiet, sincere
manner of one who talks to equals, thoughtful
persons like himself, all desiring to enter into a
friendly discussion of which he happens to be the
leader. No threats, no denunciations, no implica-
tions of ignorance, no insinuations of ulterior mo-
tives on the part of the auditors — ^just the open

The Speaker and his Audience i6$

expression of one well-wishing person to others
whose reciprocal good wishes he takes for granted.
The majority of addresses will proceed on such a
basis, but occasionally the task of speaking in-
volves more severe aspects. Well, when an au-
dience is won in the early phases by friendly
treatment, the speaker is in a position to carry
his listeners with him in viewing even their own
shortcomings without asperity, because they feel
assured that the criticism comes from a friendly
person and not a hostile detractor. Observe the
note of friendliness in the following passage from
a speech of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., before
the employees of the Colorado Fuel and Iron
Company.

"This is a red-letter day in my life. It is the
first time I have ever had the good fortune to
meet the representatives of the employees of this
great company, its officers and mine superin-
tendents, together, and I can assure you that I
am proud to be here, and that I shall remember
this gathering as long as I live. Had this meeting
been held two weeks ago, I should have stood
here as a stranger to many of you, recognizing
few faces. Having had the opportunity last week
of visiting all of the camps in the southern coal
fields and of talking individually with practically
all of the representatives, except those who were
away; having visited in your homes, met many

i66 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

of your wives and children, we meet here not as
strangers but as friends, and it is in that spirit of
mutual friendship that I am glad to have this op-
portunity to discuss with you men our common
interests. Since this is a meeting of the ofEcers
of the company and the representatives of the
employees, it is only by your courtesy that I am
here, for I am not so fortunate as to be either one
or the other; and yet I feel that I am intimately
associated with you men, for in a sense I represent
both the stockholders and the directors. Before
speaking of the plan of industrial representation
to which our president has referred, I want to
say just a few words outlining my views as to
what different interests constitute a company or
corporation."

C. The Will to Convince and Persuade

The third feature which should mark the speak-
er's attitude toward his audience is the will to
convince and persuade. It is one thing to possess
ideas and beliefs and to have perfect confidence
in them; it is quite another thing to feel a deter-
mination to inspire others with these ideas and
beliefs. Some people are wholly content to
cherish their own convictions without even stat-
ing, to say nothing of propagating, them. Such
an attitude will not do for the man who speaks in
public. He cannot speak effectively if he says, in

The Speaker and his Audience 167

eflFect, "These are my ideas on the subject; you
may accept them or not as you choose," On the
contrary, he must have a keen desire that his
views be accepted, and what is more, a will that
they be accepted. This means that when he
stands before his auditors he must constantly
direct his efforts so to set forth information, to
clarify, to remove objections, to please, to appeal
to vital motives, to inspire as to induce acquies-
cence. Behind his descriptions, his anecdotes,
his facts, his generalizations, lies that dominant
purpose. The very fact that such a worthy ambi-
tion exists will help, on the one hand, to sub-
merge hampering thoughts of self, and on the
other hand, to make the expression of thoughts
and feelings vital and attractive. No matter,
therefore, whether the speaker wishes to get an
adoption of text-books for a publishing house, a
contribution for infirm inebriates, an acquittal
for a client, or an agreement that Shaw is not an
imitator of Ibsen, he should go before his listeners
with the spirit that wins — the determination to
carry them with him.

D. A Spirit of Helpfulness

The will to persuade and convince has just
been referred to as a "worthy ambition." In
justifying this expression, we are concerned with
the final factor involved in the attitude of the

i68 The Essentiak of Extempore Speaking

speaker toward his audience: a desire to benefit
those to whom he speaks, or to advance a worthy
cause. It is quite possible that in many cases the
inexperienced speaker will get from his early ef-
forts the chief benefits, but that might be said
about an embryo surgeon or a tyro in the legal
practice. Another admission which may be dis-
closed without hesitation is that, in general, the
more a speaker benefits his listeners, the more
credit redounds to himself. So, just as honesty
pays in speaking, helpfulness pays. In fact, the
main point in this discussion is to emphasize the
idea that the man who speaks because he desires
to perform a service rather than to glorify him-
self is not only altruistic, he is also wise. If sin-
cerely actuated by the former motive, he is much
more likely to be free from the speech shortcom-
ings which arise from attempts to make a personal
''hit." Nervousness, stilted language and con-
struction, forced humor, an effect of insincerity,
and other faults tend to characterize the self-
centered speaker. On the contrary, a person
who feels a desire to inform, to point out mis-
takes, to indicate advantages, or to enlist sup-
port for a good cause tends toward the simple,
attractive, convincing, and natural style of ad-
dress which has been urged throughout this book.
To secure for himself these advantages and to
confer upon others the benefits of helpful address^

The Speaker and his Audience 169

the speaker needs to sympathize with his au-
dience. When he is talking to those whose point
of view is the same as his own, the sympathetic
attitude is comparatively easy. But when, be-
cause of dissimilarity in education, political or
religious convictions, material interests, or social
status, the speaker's viewpoint differs from that
of his audience, — then arises the necessity for a
sympathy more rarely experienced. This, which
we call comprehensive sympathy, requires, not
that the speaker should think as do his listeners,
but that he should understand and appreciate
why they think as they do. Occasions thus call-
ing upon a person to view matters from a point
of view differing from his own are not uncommon.
And it is distinctly to his advantage to cultivate
the broad sympathies which enable him to do
this. A prosperous man who can, with fellow-
feeling, see the situation of a group of disgruntled
dock-laborers as these dock-laborers see it them-
selves, a Free-trader who can really appreciate
the viewpoint of a Protectionist audience — such
a man is in a favorable position to lead his lis^
teners toward the view which he considers best
for them. The ability to see things from the
"other fellow's" viewpoint is illustrated in this
brief extract from another of Mr. Rockefeller's
addresses.

"In order to live, the wage-earner must sell

I70 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

his labor from day to day. Unless he can do this,
the earnings from that day's labor are gone for-
ever. Capital can defer its returns temporarily in
the expectation of future profits, but labor can-
not. If, therefore, fair wages and reasonable liv-
ing conditions cannot otherwise be provided, divi-
dends must be deferred or the industry abandoned.
I believe that a corporation should be deemed to
consist of its stockholders, directors, officers and
employees; that the real interests of all are one,
and that neither labor nor capital can permanently
prosper unless the just rights of both are con-
served."

E. SuifUARY

To sum up briefly, we have seen that the speak-
er's attitude should be characterized, first, by a
watchfulness which enables him to take advan-
tage of the visible effects of his words. This
advantage, it was further observed, involves the
speaker's ability to adjust his presentation to
meet the varying responses of an audience. The
second requisite is friendliness. The speaker was
cautioned against the domineering attitude, which
springs from a disputatious nature, or from the
false idea that an audience can be coerced, or is
unfortunately adopted as a mask for timidity.
On the contrary, he was advised to use the quiet,
frank expression of a well-wishing person in dis-

The Speaker and his Audience 171

cussion with his friends and peers. A will to
convince and persuade the audience was the next
characteristic advocated. It was noted that the
indifferent attitude would not accomplish the
desired results, but that the speaker would be
helped to achieve his aims by a constant underly-
ing determination to carry his audience with him.
Helpfulness, the final factor of the attitude in
question, was presented as a quality which is no
less beneficial to the speaker than to the auditors.
The undesirable results of aiming at self-glorifica-
tion were pointed out, and the speaker was ad-
vised to profit by forgetting himself in a desire to
help those addressed. As an aid in accomplishing
this end most effectively, he was urged to culti-
vate broad sympathies with those who for various
reasons hold views differing from his own.

CHAPTER XII

THE VOICE FACTOR

A person may fulfill admirably the intellectual
and emotional requirements discussed in the pre-
ceding chapters and still fall short of the best re-
sults in speaking if the voice is not properly
used. The student may be assured at the outset,
however, that for purposes of practical speaking
the normal voice does not require a special course
of training. If the speaker has time and oppor-
tunity for a course which will rapidly strengthen
and purify his tones, so much the better, but,
fortunately, successful speaking does not demand
it. What is needed is die improvement resulting
from careful, intelligent and purposeful use of the
voice which the average person possesses. To
put it specifically, the speaker must aim at three
things: (i) to pronounce correctly; (2) to speak
distinctly; and (3) to modulate the voice with a
view to a pleasing, clear, and forceful expression
of thought and feeling. Let us consider these
points in detail.

ITS

The Voice Factor 173

A. Pronunciation

The public speaker should be careful about his
pronunciation for two reasons, mainly: first, be-
cause faulty pronunciation tends to lessen one
of his important assets, the respect and confidence
of the audience; secondly, because mistakes are
very apt to distract attention, even to the extent
of causing some members of the audience to
ponder upon the faults while the speaker proceeds
with the development of the topic. The faults
most conmionly observed may be classified as
follows:

1. Using a wrong consonant sound, as in '^ges-

ture," pronounced with a hard instead of
a soft "g"; or "chasm,** pronounced with
a."ch" instead of a "k."

2. Mistaking vowel quality, as in "writhe,** pro-

nounced with a short instead of a long "i.**

3. Interpolating sounds, as in "electorial** for

"electoral**; or "athaletic** for "ath-
letic.**

4. Sounding silent elements, such as the "b"

in "subtle,** or the "i** in "business.**

5. Omitting sounds, such as the "n** in "gov-

ernment.**

6. Misplacing accent, as in the case of "super-
flu'ous** for "super'fluous,** or "incom-

174 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able" for "incom'parable," or "con'-
trast" (verb) for "contrast'." ♦

In some cases we mispronounce words without
being aware of the errors. Having no uncertainty
about these words, we are not likely to make cor-
rections. From this fact it is clear that the speaker
will do well to keep checking up his pronunciation
by listening attentively to those who use the
language admirably, and to appeal to the dic-
tionary whenever he notes a pronunciation which
varies from his own. Sometimes we feel more
or less uncertain about words which we mispro-
nounce; we are not sure, perhaps, whether it is
"ab'domen" or "abdo'men," whether "chiropo-
dist" is pronounced with a "k" or an "sh." With
uncertainty as a fair warning, there is no excuse
for continuing to mispronounce the words in
question.

There remains a cause of wrong pronunciation
which can be obviated without the dictionary,
but which needs quite as careful attention as the
faults previously mentioned. This cause is care-
lessness in the formation of the vowel sounds. It
results in such indistinct pronunciation that

^A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

words differing only, or chiefly, in the vowel, like
"bet," "bat," "bit," "but," are often indistin-
guishable. The speaker who is guilty of this
shortcoming should lose no time in ridding him-
self of a fault which is so exasperating to the lis-
tener, and at the same time so inexcusable.

B. The Question of Indistinctness

Indistinctness as manifested in pronunciation
is only one of several forms of indistinct speaking.
And since a prime requisite of good address is
that the speaker's words — all of them — be easily
and clearly heard by the audience, we shall con-
sider the various causes of failure to speak plainly.

I. Running Words Together

Running words together, or indistinct separa-
tion, is one of these causes. Some of my readers
may remember the following old example, which
fits the case in point. A school-mistress asked
one of her little boys to read from the black-board
the sentence "This is a worm; do not step on it."
What she heard in reply was "This is a warm
doughnut step on it." Such a failure to separate
words properly is not an uncommon fault with
speakers, although very readily corrected with a
little attention. Most cases of indistinct separa*

174 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able" for "incom'parable," or "con-
trast'* (verb) for "contrast'." *

In some cases we mispronounce words without
being aware of the errors. Having no uncertainty
about these words, we are not likely to make cor-
rections. From this fact it is clear that the speaker
will do well to keep checking up his pronunciation
by listening attentively to those who use the
language admirably, and to appeal to the dic-
tionary whenever he notes a pronunciation which
varies from his own. Sometimes we feel more
or less uncertain about words which we mispro-
nounce; we are not sure, perhaps, whether it is
"ab'domen" or "abdo'men," whether "chiropo-
dist" is pronounced with a "k** or an "sh.** With
uncertainty as a fair warning, there is no excuse
for continuing to mispronounce the words in
question.

*A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

B. The Question of Indistinctness

I. Running Words Together

174 Th^ Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able" for "incom'parable," or "con'-
trast" (verb) for "contrast'." *

*A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

B. The Question of Indistinctness

I. Running Words Together

174 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able" for "incom'parable," or "con'-
trast" (verb) for "contrast'." *

*A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

words differing only, or chiefly, in the vowel, like
"bet," "bat,'' "bit,'' "but," are often indistin-
guishable. The speaker who is guilty of this
shortcoming should lose no time in ridding him-
self of a fault which is so exasperating to the lis-
tener, and at the same time so inexcusable.

B. The Question of Indistinctness

I. Running Words Together

174 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able" for "incom'parable," or "con'-
trast" (verb) for "contrast'." *

*A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

B. The Question of Indistinctness

I. Running Words Together

174 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able" for "incom'parable," or "con'-
trast" (verb) for "contrast'." *

*A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

B. The Question of Indistinctness

Indistinctness as manifested in pronunciation
is only one of several forms of indistinct speaking.
And since a prime requisite of good address is
that the speaker's words — all of them — ^be easily
and clearly heard by the audience, we shall con-
sider the various causes of failure to speak plainly.

I. Running Words Together

174 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able" for "incom'parable," or "con'-
trast" (verb) for "contrast'." *

*A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

words differing only, or chiefly, in the vowel, like
"bet," "bat,'^ "bit," "but," are often indistin-
guishable. The speaker who is guilty of this
shortcoming should lose no time in ridding him-
self of a fault which is so exasperating to the lis-
tener, and at the same time so inexcusable.

B. The Question of Indistinctness

I. Running Words Together

174 '^^ Essentials of Extempore Speaking

par'able'* for "incom'parable," or "con-
trast" (verb) for "contrast'." ♦

^A very useful rule for pronouncing dissyllables which
have the same spelling for the verb and the noun is that
usually the verb has the accent on the last syllable, and the
noun on the first.

The Voice Factor 175

B. The Question of Indistinctness

I. Running Words Together

176 The Essentials of Extempore

tion of words can be obviated by speaking with a
more moderate rate.

II. Speaking in the Throat

Another source of indistinctness is talking in
the throat, or, as it is sometimes suggestively ex-
pressed, "swallowing one's words." This fault
is due in many instances to a complete lack of
interest in the subject which the speaker is dis-
cussing. For this or other reasons he confines
his effort mainly to the mere vocalizing process,
and does not raise the tone into the resonating
cavities, nor articulate distinctly. If a man as-
sumes to address the public, he must "speak up''
and not gurgle.

III. Speaking with the Mouth Closed

A cause of indistinctness more common, pep-
haps, than the last mentioned is the failure to
"speak out." I refer to the habit of speaking
with the lips almost closed. In listening to speak-
ers even as far removed from vaudeville as the
pulpit, one might sometimes think that they were
practicing ventriloquism. It is impossible for
words to carry if held back by the teeth and lips.
A speaker who wants his audience to hear easily
should notice how much more clearness and carry-

The Voice Factor 177

ing power words have when vowels are uttered
with an open mouth.

IV. Faulty Articulation

Probably the most significant cause of indis-
tinct speech is inaccurate formation of the con-
sonant sounds, commonly known as faulty ar-
ticulation. In rare cases this is due tx> a defective
formation of the lips, teeth, tongue or palate.
Such a defect can in many instances be remedied
by dental or surgical treatment. Occasionally
the fault arises from an absolutely incorrect plac-
ing of the lips, teeth or tongue in making a given
consonant. This is instanced in the lisp, which
is usually caused by letting the tip of the tongue
slip between the teeth instead of turning it up
just behind them in producing the "s" sound.
Many of the so-called dialect errors, likewise,
arise from this wrong idea of how the sounds
should be produced. The German, for example,
is likely to say "vill" for "will " or the Chinaman
to say "lice" for "rice," because the former puts
his lips, and the latter his tongue, in an absolutely
wrong position. But all such cases are excep-
tional; the cause of the alarming amount of poor
articulation is sheer carelessness. The German
student works for weeks or months to get just
the right forward thrust of the lips to produce

178 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

our *V sound; the persistent Chinaman de-
velops the muscle of his tongue in the transforma-
tion of "lice" into "rice." But the vast ma-
jority of our own speakers who exhaust the ears
and patience of audiences with their mumbled
words could, if asked to repeat any sentence, ar-
ticulate with perfect distinctness.

With these people it is not a question of organic
defect, nor of absolute misplacements of the organs
of articulation; they are easily able to make every
consonant sound. But in their habitual manner
of speaking they are satisfied to make loose ar-
ticulations, approximately correct placements of
the lips, teeth and tongue. To illustrate con-
cretely, they may articulate the "f" in "fine"
so indefinitely that the listener understands the
word to be "pine"; or their "t" and "th" sounds
are so slightly distinguished that their "thanks"
are apt to pass for "tanks." Now the simple fact
to be observed is that the consonants of a lan-
guage can be produced in only one way, and that
with exactness and energy in the placing of the
lips, teeth or tongue as the case may require. It
is not enough to be approximately correct. It is
possible, of course, to articulate so precisely, so
"nicely," as to sound affected, but such an un-
fortunate result of carefulness is so rare as to be
negligible. Certainly it is not a danger of such
magnitude as to excuse or explain the slovenliness

The Voice Factor 179

of modem American speech. And, for the public
speaker, indistinctness, or any other speech de*
feet, is likely to spell failure. Demosthenes was
not thinking of his health when he used to practice
speaking with pebbles in his mouth to overcome
a stammer.

C. Modulation

Regard for distinctness is scarcely more essen-
tial to effective speaking than is careful attention
to quality, pitch and volume of voice, and rate of
utterance. We shall consider these factors with
a view to securing the most pleasing, clear and
forceful expression of the speaker's thoughts and
emotions.

L Pleasing Expression

a. Voice Quality

Pleasing vocal expression is clear and resonant
in quality, and varying within moderate limits of
pitch, volume and rate. A clear and resonant
voice quality depends largely upon an open throat
and unobstructed nasal passages. If the speaker
"talks in his throat," he is constricting the flexible
walls of the voice-box and throat, with the inevi-
table result of huskiness, harshness, and a lack of
carrying power. If he "talks through his nose"
(as the popular expression misleadingly puts it),

l8o The Essentiak of Extempore Speaking

he is, in reality, dosing the nasal passages so that
little or no air can escape by way of the nostrils.
This results in the same disagreeable sound as is
produced by speaking with the nostrils pinched
together. If the student is troubled with either a
throaty or nasal voice, he can improve his quality
by exercise on the vowels a-€-i-5-fi with a view
to producing clear, open tones which get their
resonance well up in the back of the mouth and
in the nasal chambers without any strain on the
throat.

Fortunately no unusual, ''professional" kind
of voice is desirable for pleasing, and otherwise
effective, public address. The normal quality is
emphatically the best. As soon as a speaker
begins with a hollow, stilted, ''oratorical" tone
which goes with, "Let us stretch our ears back
and listen to the distant rumblings through the
corridors of time," — ^the audience tends to go to
sleep or leave the room. On the other hand, the
quality which pleases an audience is the sincere,
natural quality which a person would use in an
interesting discussion with a friend. Even if one
is speaking in a large auditorium, the added carry-
ing power should be given by increasing the force
and speaking with especial distinctness — ^not by
changing to a bellowing orotund.

The Voice Factor i8i

b. Inflection

To produce a pleasing impression, the inflection,
i. e., the raising and lowering of pitch, should be
within moderate limits — neither so low that the
words cannot be easily heard, nor ever reaching a
height where shrillness begins and the voice is
liable to break. At the same time, the tone should
be kept moving, irregularly of course, in keeping
with the sense, up and down the scale to avoid
monotony. Here again no better standard can
be suggested than a slight extension of the range
employed by the interested participants in a
conversation. The desirability of making the in-
flection more marked than in ordinary conversa-
tion is, first, that the speaker is usually farther
from his listeners; and, secondly, that the ex-
tended range of inflection helps to express the vital
interest which the speaker must employ in order
to arouse and sustain the real attention of his lis-
teners. It might be supposed, perhaps, that a
speaker who has the proper interest in his subject
and audience will naturally use a bright and at-
tractive pitch modulation. If he does, it is well.
But in many cases persons whose modulations in
private conversation are all that could be desired
become hollow in voice quality, monotonous in
pitch and rate, and ineffective in emphasis when
brought face to face with an audience. If the

1 82 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

student of speaking can, therefore, keep constantly
before him the idea that he is not to ''orate at''
his auditors, but to talk interestingly to them, his
pitch and many other things, noted throughout
the book, will be greatly helped.

c Fofce and Rate

Among other things pleasingly regulated by a
slightly modified conversational style of address
are force and rate. Naturally, the volume should
be somewhat greater in public address than in
ordinary conversation, and the rate a little slower.
It is distinctly annoying to an audience to listen
to a speaker whose voice is so lacking in force
(volume) that a constant strain is necessary in
order to hear what he says. Quite as displeasing
is the speaker who talks loudly, as if he were ad-
dressing a company of deaf people. Even an
occasionally stentorian outburst is to be avoided,
for the speaker who pleases never shouts. Neither
does he rush through his sentences, nor drag out
his words, one by one.

We have seen that the essentials of attractive
speaking are: a clear, resonant, normal quality of
voice; pitch, force and rate conversational, with
the first somewhat more extended in range, the
second slightly increased, and the last slightly
decreased; and a general avoidance of extremes.

The Voice Factor 183

We may next consider the application of vocal
factors to clear and forceful speaking.

II. Clear and Forceful Expression

In discussing clear and forceful expression our
concern is with specific modulations of quality,
pitchy force and rate which will best convey to
the listeners the thought and feeling of the speaker.

a. Modulations of Quality

First, as to occasional variations from the nor-
mal quality of voice. There are times when the
speaker wishes to arouse in his listeners a certain
emotion. His own feeling is the basis of influence,
but his vocal expression can do much to infuse
the audience. If, for example, a person were de-
nouncing a vicious breach of trust, or any repre-
hensible person or thing, it would be natural and
effective if he conveyed his intense anger by a
so-called guttural (throaty) quality of voice.
Again, if he has in the course of his speech been
lifted to an attitude of awe or reverence, this
emotion is much more apt to spread through the
audience if his voice is full, round and sonorous,
in harmony with the dignity of the feeling. Take,
for instance, such a sentiment as is expressed in
Kipling's '* Recessional.''

184 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

€i

God of our fathers, known of old,
Lord of our far-flung battle line,
Beneath whose awful hand we hold
Dominion over palm and pine,
Lord God of hosts be with us yet.
Lest we forget, lest we forget," etc.

If the reader will try this with the normal, con-
versational voice, he will at once realize why a
variation of tone quality is essential when such
lofty sentiments are expressed.

Another occasion warranting a departure from
the normal quality is an intensely emphatic climax.
The usual method of procedure is to use the normal
tone, steadily increasing the volume to the very
end of the passage. But a very effective variation
of this means of expressing intensity is to change
at the climax to a whisper. This is a striking
device, and, like the other changes of quality noted
in this section, is rarely called for. The speaker
should, however, be familiar with them all when
occasion does arise.

b. Modulations of Pitch and Force

Unlike quality variations, modulations of pitch
and force are constant. This fact has already
been noted in the discussion of attractive speak-
ing; but concerning their application to clear and

The Voice Factor 185

forceful expression, it is desirable to point out
certain additional facts. The slightly intensified
conversational style of address previously advo-
cated will take care of the rising pitch-increasing
force incident to the approach toward stressed
words, and the corresponding lowering-decreasing
after these words. It need only be stated that
speakers frequently fail to make these modulations
sufficiently pronounced, with the result that the
audience does not get the full meaning, and is
not duly impressed by the important words.

Moreover, it is a common thing to hear speakers
who, though they may bring out the important
words in sentences, do not attempt to make sig-
nificant sentences stand out from sections, nor
to heighten the effect of especially noteworthy
phases of the speech considered as a whole. Thus
to express all parts on a dead level is a weakness
because practically every address contains cer-
tain sentences and groups of sentences which the
speaker considers particularly vital. The fault
may be remedied in two ways: by coming out
strong and with a somewhat heightened pitch at
vital points; or by delivering such passages with
an exactly opposite change from the normal, i. e.,
with a low pitch modulation and a very subdued
degree of force.

l86 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

c. Modulations of Rate

In contributing toward clearness and emphasis,
variations of rate are also of importance. Recall-
ing what has already been said about the desira-
bility of a deliberate general style of speaking, we
may proceed to point out when modulations from
the normal rate are advantageous. First, when-
ever the discussion is necessarily complex and
difficult for the listener to follow; whenever the
speaker wishes to impress the audience with the
idea of slow movement, profundity, or vastness;
whenever it is desirable to create distinct and
separate impressions, either of concrete things or
abstract ideas which are grouped in composition —
in all these instances a markedly slow rate makes
for both clearness and forcefulness.

Somewhat akin to slow rate, and employed unth
the aim of securing a similar but more intense
effect, is the emphatic pause. This device, no-
ticeably neglected by beginners, is among the most
striking means of emphasis. Coming just before
the significant word or statement, the pause in-
tensifies the attention in anticipation of what is
to follow. Following immediately after the
stressed expression, the pause turns the thought
of the audience back upon the important idea.
The combination of pause before and after the
significant statement is especially telling.

The Voice Factor 187

On the other hand if at certain stages the speech-*
matter is relatively obvious or of slight signifi-
cance, such as a bit of humor or a parenthesis; if
rapidity of action is presented, or excitement of
any kind is depicted, or indulged in purposely by
the speaker; if it is desired to get a stirring cumula-
tive eifect from a compact series of images or
ideas — in such cases the rate should be accelerated.

D. Summary

The present chapter has emphasized three es-
sentials regarding the use of the voice: correct
pronunciation, distinct speaking, and pleasing,
clear and forceful expression of thought and feel-
ing. With reference to the first requisite, it was
pointed out that poor pronunciation on the part
of the speaker tends to lessen that respect and
confidence which are so necessary to his success.
In order to minimize errors, the student was ad-
vised to keep checking up his pronunciation with
that of people who use the language well, and to
consult the dictionary for all cases of difference
noted. Further, the student was urged never to
neglect settling his mind at once whenever uncer-
tainty as to the pronunciation of a word arises.
Finally, a warning was given against the faulty
pronunciation caused by carelessness in enun-
ciating the vowel sounds.

1 88 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

In considering indistinctness, we noted that the
difficulty was due mainly to the following faults:
(i) running words together, which can usually
be avoided by speaking at a moderate rate; (2)
speaking in the throat, which can be overcome
by making sufficient effort to raise the tone into
the pharynx and nasal chambers, and to articulate
properly; (3) speaking with the mouth closed, a
fault which can be cured by cultivating the habit
of opening the lips in the utterance of vowel
sounds; (4) bad articulation, which in rare cases is
due to physical defects or absolutely wrong posi-
tions of the organs of articulation, but chiefly
to the all-too-common satisfaction with approxi-
mately correct positions. Emphasis was put upon
the necessity of avoiding carelessness, and of
making each consonant with absolute accuracy.

Modulation of voice was discussed, first, with
reference to pleasing speech, and secondly, with
regard to clear and forceful speech. The student
was advised to secure the former by using a clear,
resonant normal quality, a constantly varying
inflection (change of pitch), following the style
employed in conversation but somewhat more
extended in range, force applied as in conversa-
tion but somewhat greater in amount, and rate
slightly slower than conversational.

To express thought and feeling clearly and
forcibly, certain modulations other than the con-

The Voice Factor 189

versational ones are occasionally needed. The
normal quality of voice is in most cases most de-
sirable, but for some purposes, such as indicating
intense anger, a striking climax, awe or reverence,
the guttural, the whisper and the orotund are,
respectively, more expressive. For bringing out
vitally significant points, the speaker was advised
to use a noticeable variation from the normal
force and pitch, either by increasing the former
and raising the latter, or by doing just the op-
posite. Special modulations of rate for clearness
and emphasis were also noted: the markedly slow
rate to present complex thoughts, or to convey
the impression of profundity, vastness or dis-
tinctness; the pause as a striking means of em-
phasis; and an accelerated rate for delivering pas-
sages of slight significance, for suggesting rapidity
of action or excitement, or for getting a stirring
effect from a compact series of images or ideas.
It is desirable to add, in closing, that the aim
throughout the chapter has been to emphasize
the fact that a normal, unaffected voice, free from
faults and modulated substantially as in ani-
mated conversation, is the standard for effective-
ness.

CHAPTER XIII

EXPRESSIVE GESTURE

That gesture, or visible expression, is a valuable
aid to the voice in conveying a speaker's message
to his audience is universally admitted. It is fre-
quently contended, however, that the study of
gesture is more or less futile. The crux of the
contention is that gesture is something spon-
taneous and that any attempt to restrict or direct
this instinctive impulse is damaging to real ex-
pressiveness. In view of the ''nods and becks
and wreathed smiles" which we all see in our
daily lives — ^to say nothing about the fists and
frowns — ^there is no question about the spon-
taneity of visible expression. But as has been
said previously concerning the voice, the expres-
siveness which we notice in offices, dining-rooms,
and back-yards often fails to materialize on the
speaking platform. Apropos of this, Mr. A. C.
Sutherland has narrated a suggestive little inci-
dent that runs somewhat as follows :

It appears that a group of amateur actors had
secured the services of a kindly-disposed profes-
sional to coach one of their productions. In due

X90

Expressive Gesture 191

time the play was given, with no little success.
After the final curtain, a rather pompous person
found his way to the coach and complimented
him on the performance, adding, '^But the finest
bit was contributed by the little girl; any one
could see that her acting was nature, not art/'
"My dear fellow ** replied the somewhat nettled
coach, "I have devoted two hours a day for three
months to teach that child how to appear natural
for five minutes."

If people who address the public would only
express themselves on the platform even as well
as they do in animated private conversation, teach-
ers of speaking might possibly be content to
forswear art and let nature take its course. In-
deed, it is to be hoped that the use of the friendly,
genial, sincere attitude, the simple, unaffected
style of composition, and the conversational
modulations of the voice will in themselves have
a beneficial influence on the student's gesture.
But a few suggestions may help him to use nature
to the best advantage; in other words, to avoid
certain things which distract the attention of the
audience, and to employ such gestures as will
strengthen his delivery.

A. Gesture Defined

Gesture was referred to above as "visible ex-
pression." In a broad sense, then, it is any means

192 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

of appealing to the eye. This includes all pos-
tures and movements of the body, head, face,
limbs and hands.

B. Normal Position

One of the first things for a speaker to acquire
is a good normal posture. The aim in this respect
is partly to produce the impression of ease and
poise, but more especially to avoid displeasing
or distracting attitudes. To stand with chest
concaved, arms akimbo or folded, hands in the
pockets, or with feet spread far apart — ^any such
attitude tends to call attention to the speaker^s
person, and is therefore as undesirable as a so-
called 'Moud'' check pattern in clothes. A posi-
tively good effect is produced, on the other hand,
by the mere fact that a speaker's position indi-
cates unobtrusive self-confidence and poise. Head
and chest erect; feet three or four inches apart,
one slightly advanced; arms and hands hanging
easily at the sides — that represents the proper
position. It is very simple and natural, and yet
awkwardness on the speaking platform unfortu-
nately abounds.

C. Shifting the Position

An occasional change of position is desirable,
furnishing both to speaker and audience a relief

Expressive Gesture 193

from the tiresomeness of fixed posture. Some-
times this shift will consist merely of throwing
the weight on the advanced foot for the eifect of
emphasis or intensity, or on the retired foot when
the speaker is in a calm, deliberative mood. Again,
the change may be more marked; the speaker may,
particularly when opening a new phase, advance
or retire three or four steps. In doing this there
should be no shuffling or gliding movements, but
natural steps. And in case the speaker advances
toward the left or right rather than directly for-
ward, care should be taken to avoid an awkward
crossing of the feet.

D. Expression wfth the Head and Face

In reference to expression with the head and
face, the injunction, "Be natural," applies with
particular force. Rigidity, or constant turning,
or excessive nodding of the head are to be eschewed.
The eyes of the speaker are to be kept on the eyes
of his auditors, just as in conversation. As in
conversation, also, he should give his features full
play in the expression of his thoughts and emo-
tions. Or, rather, the expressiveness of mouth
and eyes will oftentimes be more marked than in
conversation, in order to harmonize with the more
animated or intense style of address which is or-
dinarily required of the public speaker. Above
all things, the dull, wooden countenance which

194 '^^ Essentials of Extempore Speakinf

never smiles, nor frowns, nor lifts an eyebrow,
nor compresses the lips is to be avoided. For in-
fluencing an audience, the voice itself has scarcely
the power which is inherent in an expressive coun-
tenance.

E. Gestures of the Arms and Hands

We come now to that phase of visible expression
which is least likely to be effectively directed by
natural impulse — gestures of the arms and hands.
Undoubtedly the impulse to use the arms exists
in most speakers; but the results are in many
cases far from satisfactory. \^th some persons
the impulse is manifested in a mere succession of
little jerks of the hand; with others it is converted
into one or two full gestures which are used with
wearying monotony for all purposes; again, the
impulse leads the speaker into absolutely mis-
leading motions, or a constant threshing about
with the arms, or various other futilities. In the
field of manual gesture, therefore, a little knowl-
edge of the real possibilities, as evinced by good
speakers and open to the test of common sense,
should be helpful.

I. Manual Gestures and Common Sense

Let us first inquire, from a practical viewpoint,
just what people attempt, either consciously or

Expressive Gesture 195

unconsciously, when they make gestures with
the hands in ordinary interconununication. The
angered schoolboy threatens to "smash" his op-
ponent's face, and displays his extended fist.
The preacher appeals to heaven, and raises his
hands toward the sky. The enthusiastic fisher-
man in recounting the capture of a "whopping"
bass spreads his hands widely apart. The proud
farmer informs the stranger that he owns all the
land in sight, accompanying his words with a
broad sweep of the hand. A foreman, directing
the engineer of a steam crane, turns his palm
down and motions downward if he wants the
tackle lowered. An irate old father, terminating
a heated argument with his rebellious son, thumps
the desk as he delivers a paternal ultimatum.
What are all these people trying to do? Clearly,
to express by suggestive motions the scene, action,
thought or feeling about which they are speaking.
These are typical, natural gestures, and it will
hardly be denied that they add materially to the
vividness, clearness and force of the accompanying
verbal expression. The listener (and observer)
understands them — ^they mean something to him
because they are the motions that he, or anybody
else, might make under similar circumstances.
Well, that is all that is required of the gestures
used by the public speaker; they must really
mean something. When he says that "the whole

196 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

country is suffering from a car shortage/' he will
give a much clearer suggestion of extent hy a
broad sweep than by a little jerk of the hand in
the region of the hip. If he says the jury "must"
acquit his client, he will show much stronger con-
viction by swinging his fist down than by merely
lifting his hand to the level of the waist and letting
it drop to the side.

II. TTif Scope of Manual Gestures

The following sections indicate the general
scope of manual gestures, of which the preceding
paragraph gave specific examples. It is to be
noted that under the various classifications no
distinction is made between that which is ma-
terial, and that which is intellectual or emotional.
Gestures, . being purely physical, derive their
power to suggest ideas only by virtue of the
analogy between ideas and material things or
actions. For example, a noble aim is suggested
by a high gesture because it is analogous to a lofty
tower, let us say; likewise, the inverted palm can
convey the idea of emotional restraint because
it is a common sign of physical restraint. In
considering the scope of gesture the student will
do well to bear in mind this significant observa-
tion.

Expressive Gesture 197

a. Forms of the Hand

The hand itself is capable of various forms, each
of which suggests distinct impressions, especially
in conjunction with speech.

1. The upturned palm addresses, presents, af-

firms, permits, shows openness and ge-
niality.

2. The inverted palm covers, suppresses, pro-

hibits, indicates secrecy and negation.

3. The index finger warns, threatens, points

out, emphasizes and isolates specific
things.

4. The palm turned outward at an angle to

the wrist drives away, and indicates op-
position or abhorrence.

5. The clenched fist defies, challenges, denotes

intensity, determination, or extreme em-
phasis.

b. Positions of the Hand

Not only do the forms of the hand convey dis-
tinctly varying impressions, but so also do the
positions of the hand with respect to the body.

1. The gesture may be terminated above the

line of the shoulders to denote elevation
of any sort, physical, mental or emotional.

2. It may be made below the waist line to con-

vey the impression of low position, base-

198 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

ness, weakness, in short ansrthing literally
or figuratively low.
3. The gesture may be terminated between the
shoulder and waist lines to express all
those matters which involve neither eleva-
tion or lowness. This middle plane is
most frequently used since it expresses
such commonly recurring matters as ex-
tent in time or space, numbers, presenta-
tion, analysis, direct address, and ordi-
nary reference to persons, places and
things.
It is to be noticed that the hand, in addition to
moving into a high, low, or middle position, is
either directed forward or is passed from the front
in a lateral direction. This distinction between
a front and a lateral movement can also be used
to advantage.

1. The front gestures, being directly toward the

audience, are particularly emphatic, and
being nearer the audience, are best calcu-
lated to suggest nearness in space or time,
limited numbers or extent.

2. The lateral gestures, in which the hand

moves from the front toward the side,
create the impression of great extent, large
numbers, distance in time or space, or
inclusiveness.

Expressive Gesture 199

c. Using Both Hands

For gestures with any of the hand forms in any
position, both hands may be employed to give
expression to especial intensity of thought or
emotion. The use of both hands is helpful also
in depicting such concepts as comparison, con-
trast, vastness, separation, collecting, balance,
and opposition.

III. Essential Characteristics of Effective Gesture

Whether gestures be double or single handed,
high, middle or low, front or lateral, there are
certain characteristics which are essential to their
effectiveness. They must be apt, accurately
timed and spontaneous.

a. Aptness

In saying, ^'Suit the action to the word, the
word to the action,'' Hamlet gave, in effect, a
broad definition of aptness. More specifically, it
means a discriminating use of the various hand
forms and positions. For example, a lofty con-
cept, such as honor, sacredness, triumph, or a
reference to physical elevation finds expression
in a high gesture. An insistence on a specific
point is italicized, as it were, by the index finger.
A portrayal of hopelessness or submission is sug-

200 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

gested by a low gesture. One may be sure that
when Hamlet gave that excellent advice to the
players, he did not mean to advocate a different
gesture for every varying thought and feeling.
Such a method of visible expression would put
upon the speaker an enormous and ridiculous
burden. Fortunately, nothing of the kind is con-
templated. As the foregoing classifications indi-
cate, many different things can be suggested by
substantially the same gesture. For instance, a
clenched fist in a forward position is appropriate
to an expression of physical force, emphatic asser^
tion, determination, defiance and challenge; a
low gesture is in harmony with a reference to weak-
ness, submission, depravity, low position, hope-
lessness and kindred matters. On the other hand,
it is equally true that a gesture which is in keep-
ing with a certain mood, or type of idea may be
very inappropriate for certain other moods or
types. An appeal for friendly co-operation would
be poorly expressed by a wave of the inverted
palm. Aptness, then, requires that a gesture be
used, not as a mere irrelevant accompaniment of
words but rather as something which actually
co-operates with them.

b. Accuracy of Timing

The second essential, accuracy of timing, ap-
plies to what may be called the mechanics of

Expressive Gesture 201

gesture. Practically every gesture of the hands
consists of three parts: raising the hand in prep-
aration, the gesture proper, and the dropping of
the hand to normal position. To time a gesture
accurately, the preparatory part must be de-
liberately completed in time for the gesture proper
to move on the word or word group which the
action is intended to support. The two parts are
ordinarily made in one continuous movement;
but a particularly emphatic effect, similar to that
produced by the vocal pause, may be secured by
sustaining the hand several instants just before
the stroke, or gesture proper. The hand may be
held in position at the close of the stroke also, for
the sake of fastening the attention of the audience
upon the thought just expressed. Even when
special emphasis is not desired there should always
be a brief sustentation at the end of the stroke
before the hand relaxes.

Two or three typical instances of timing a ges-
ture may be of service at this point. Let us take
the sentence, "The sponsors of the plan must
meet their obligations." The upward, preparatory
movement is made with the words, "of the plan,"
so as to be ready for the down stroke on "must,"
after which the hand is relaxed. Again, on such a
sentence as, "Across a weary desert the caravan
slowly moved," the preparatory part must antici-
pate the first word because the stroke continues

202 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

throughout the entire statement. As a final
example, we shall take an instance requiring ges-
tures in a series, such as, ''The people of this dtjr,
the people of this state, the people of this nation —
all will benefit by this measure." The important
additional observation for cases of this kind is
that the four strokes, on "dty,** "state," "na-
tion," and "all," should proceed from one to an-
other without dropping the hand to the side until
the end of the series.

c. Spontaneity

Spontaneity, the last characteristic to be dis-
cussed, is first in importance. A gesture may
now and then be inapt, or badly timed and pass
unnoticed, providing it is sufficiently spontaneous
to be wholly subordinate to the thought of the
speaker. But let a gesture appear calculated,
artificial, made-toorder, and the effect is bad,
for the audience will see the gesture and the effect
of the thought will naturally be discounted.
Would it not be better, then, to forego any at-
tempt to study gesture? The detractors cry
"Hear! Hear!" Certainly no sane teacher is
going to claim that a student of extempore speak-
ing can give much thought to his gesture while
attending to his composition and his audience.
The reader should remember, however, that a
person is not obliged to learn a specific gesture for

Expressive Gesture 203

each individual statement. He learns certain
forms and positions, together with general types
of impression which these gestures are best fitted
to convey. For instance he learns that a broad
sweep gives the impression of large extent or
magnitude, and whether in a given speech he refers
to vast sums of money, or great stretches of coun-
try, or huge contracts, or enormous crowds of
people, he knows how to act. Practice, which
associates the various kinds of gesture with the
different types of thought and emotion, tells the
rest of the story. What is claimed, then, is that
gestures can be cultivated in practice speaking
so that when a person stands before an audience
his natural impulses to make gesture are turned
instinctively, not into mere action, but into ex-
pressive action.

F. Summary

We have noted in this chapter that the desira-
bility of studying and practicing gesture is due
to the fact that a person's natural expressiveness,
however unsatisfactory that may be under the
most favorable circumstances, tends to become
even more restricted and awkward in front of an
audience. The suggestions embodied in the chap-
ter concerned posture, expressions with the head
and face, manual gestures, and the essential char-^
acteristics of effective gesture.

204 The Essentials of Extempore Speaking

The speaker was advised to stand with head and
chest erect, feet slightly separated, with one ad-
vanced three or four inches, and arms at the sides.
Occasional shifts of weight to the retired or ad-
vanced foot were advised; also a change of place
on the platform now and then. In all cases, a
change of position should be free from constraint,
since that induces awkwardness and attracts atten-
tion. The speaker was next warned against ex-
cessive nodding or turning of the head, and urged
to keep his eyes constantly upon the eyes of his
auditors and to give free play to facial expression.
With reference to gestures with the arms and
hands, typical examples of both inexpressive and
expressive movements were presented. This was
followed by a tabulation of the various forms and
positions of the hands, with the general scope of
expression for each. Aptness, accuracy of timing,
and spontaneity were then discussed as the chief
characteristics of e£Fective gestures.

CHAPTER XIV
CONCLUSION

The final word of advice is — practice! Speak
at every opportunity! If your situation does not
allow frequent chances, make them by joining a
club, class, social, business or professional associa-
tion which will afford occasions for applying the
principles advocated in the foregoing pages !

A few specific suggestions relative to practice
may be useful to those who are inexperienced.
In the first place, careful investigation and or-
ganization, as set forth in the chapter on prepara-
tion, are always requisite. In the second place,
it is best to talk on relatively easy subjects at
first, preferably those which can be developed in
greater part by narration or description, such as
personal experiences, scenes, pictures, plots of
plays or novels, biographies, or historical accounts.
If exposition or argument is undertaken, the
topic should not be a complex one, but rather an
exposition of a simple machine, structure, or
process, or an argument on a local or otherwise
familiar proposition. Thirdly, the inexperienced

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